New Ideas in Lighting Get Closer to Market Research Paper

New Ideas in Lighting Get Closer to Market - Research Paper Example The scope of saving energy and the techniques required may vary from place to place but it is regarded switching to more eco-friendly and energy efficient source as it helps in reducing the CO2 emissions by a significant number (CARDWELL, 2014). Adapting to energy efficient sources usually costs more money up-front but in many cases the capital outlay will be paid back in the form of reduced energy costs within a short period of time. This makes switching to energy efficient sources more attractive and budget friendly. In order to conserve and save energy in terms of light bulbs, green lights are the most efficient option available today to save more energy. Incandascent bulbs have been the mainstream bulbs we have known. Incandescent use more electricity during the process of production of heat hence they are short-lived and need constant replacement. Usually homeowners would argue that energy saver lights such as the LED and other energy saver bulbs or energy saver light bulbs are less expensive than ever before and provide superior light quality, and quickly payback in the form of saving energy and reducing replacement costs. LED lights are more affordable and flexible now. These incredibly efficient and technologically advanced lights will be the lights used in future. There are other lights bulbs which are also energy efficient, such as the CFL (compact florescent lights), which have come a long way and can be fitted into the same socket as the incandescent bulbs (smartandgreen.eu, 2014). This is the most common type of lighting in homes, owing to the fact that it is affordable and comes in a vast range of sizes, shapes, and wattages. The drawback of these bulbs, however, is that they are inefficient. They produce light by heating a solid material until that material produces a glow. In the process, much energy is consumed as a result of the heat that is produced. As a

Procurement Routes and the Different Formats of Tendercontract Dissertation

Procurement Routes and the Different Formats of Tendercontract Documents - Dissertation Example As the discussion stresses procurement is the acquisition of goods and services for use and benefits of individuals or governments and corporations, obtained with the help of terms and contracts. Procurement is guided by certain factors such as services provided within a fixed budget or goods obtained by using economic analysis or cost analysis. According to the research findings procurement methods are characterized by application for tenders and different forms of contracts and tender documents are used and the methods of procurement have significant implications for small to medium sized contractors. The economic or cost analysis of procurement is seen in terms of risks or without risks. When risks are involved the analysis shows expected outcomes or values for a specific product or service. Organizations have procurement policies and strategies in place that aid in procurement of goods and services through planned and informed management decisions to help businessmen, clients and organizations alike. Procurement policies are focused on meeting corporate or organizational goals and objectives in which council or corporations, organizations, business clients, suppliers and contracts derive maximum support and mutual advantage for long term business and professional relationships. All workforce issues are considered in proc urement activity and focus should be given on maximizing purchasing power and in ensuring fair competition in all procurement activity. ... plication for tenders and different forms of contracts and tender documents are used and the methods of procurement have significant implications for small to medium sized contractors. The economic or cost analysis of procurement is seen in terms of risks or without risks. When risks are involved the analysis shows expected outcomes or values for a specific product or service. Organizations have procurement policies and strategies in place that aid in procurement of goods and services through planned and informed management decisions to help businessmen, clients and organizations alike. Procurement policies are focused on meeting corporate or organizational goals and objectives in which council or corporations, organizations, business clients, suppliers and contracts derive maximum support and mutual advantage for long term business and professional relationships (Turner, 1997; Marsh, 2003). All workforce issues are considered in procurement activity and focus should be given on maxi mizing purchasing power and in ensuring fair competition in all procurement activity. Procurement activities will also have to consider opportunities for social enterprise and continuous improvements in project implementation and sustainability. Usually resource members are responsible for strategic implementation of procurement. Procurement activities must comply with the best practice processes and procurement sponsors should provide feedback on the procurement process to the procurement support unit. Procurement activity and policy works in this manner and requires teamwork, and arrangement between suppliers, contractors and corporations. We consider a case study on the procurement policy of the Liverpool Council which states the principles of procurement policy are as follows: To ensure

Documents of American History Essay Example for Free

Documents of American History Essay John Adams is an important figure in the history of this country at the most important time in its history: the time of its birth. He is a towering figure in American History and his accomplishments speak to protecting the rights of his fellow men, even if those men were British soldiers accused of shooting Americans as was the case with the Boston Massacre of 1770. John Adams served as minister to France in 1777 when at that time, the colonists badly needed French intervention if they ever hoped to win the American Revolution. Adams also had a contributing role in America’s Declaration of Independence as he was a vocal member of the Continental Congress. Adams also wrote the Massachusetts State Constitution, including its Bill of Rights. All of the above mentioned speak to the love of freedom and the protection of these rights to which Adams spoke so dearly. So then why during the 20th century, was Adams almost vilified compared to his friend and one time enemy Thomas Jefferson? It is peculiar how History seems to take sides over one issue of vilifies or glorifies one person above his real role in life.   Both Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln enjoyed such an honor during the latter half of the 19th century and into the 20th. Only recently, when it is almost certain, that Jefferson fathered children of a mixed breed, yet still owned 200 slaves at a time, when Adams spoke to the emancipation of slavery, does the playing field become more level. This is especially true with David McCullough’s book John Adams, which actually sparked a Congressional insight into the importance of John Adams and a rethinking by the American public, spoke about the legacy of a man who was vital to the survival of this new experiment called the American Republic. Adams is vilified to a certain degree for two actions: forcing his bitterness over the loss of the 1800 election, not to greet the incoming President as is the custom now, and the dreaded Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 which horrified Thomas Jefferson and helped lead to the one time best friends, not to speak to speak to each other for another twelve years. Both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson will be forever linked together in American history. The 2nd and 3rd presidents of The United States and one time best friends, who later became political rivals and has the distinction of dying on the same day; the 50 anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, were giants in the quest for American Independence. John Adams, twice, served as a diplomat to France both during the American Revolution as well as in the years immediately following the war. â€Å"Both Jefferson and Adams were very important times since historians later hailed French involvement in the American Revolution as what helped turned the tide of the war in the favor of the colonists.† (McCullough, 2001 p. 322) And as the war was nearing its end, John Adams wrote his state’s Constitution as well as its Bill of Rights. This Constitution, more than any other of its time, expanded these rights, to a greater degree than had been seen previously. Adams was instrumental in procuring the freedom of African Americans, who in Jefferson’s Virginia, would continue to be slaves or live in slave like conditions well after the end of the Civil War and despite the passage of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments. But it would not be until the 20th century that such ironies were given their proper attention. â€Å"But it would be the passage of the 1798 Alien and Sedition Act that would puzzle and infuriate all those that had been a part of the construction of the Constitution’s Bill of Rights in 1791 and specifically, the 1st amendment which protected, among others, a person’s right of free speech.† (Burns, 1997) This meaning has been expanded over the years but then as well as now, its first usage was to protect one who criticized the government, from reprisal. The 1798 Alien and Sedition Acts seemed to come in stark contrast to this most sacred of rights within the American Constitution. It said: â€Å"That if any persons shall unlawfully combine or conspire together, with intent to oppose any measure or measures of the government of the United States, which are or shall be directed by proper authority, or to impede the operation of any law of the United States Shall be punished by a fine not exceeding $5,000 or a term in prison between five months to six years.† (Commanger, 1947 p. 177) This Act would later be repealed only to see the light of day again in 1918 during WWI. But such measures, horrified Thomas Jefferson and in response, wrote along with his friend James Madison, the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions which were in direct response to the Sedition Acts and portrayed the further split between the Federalist and Democratic Parties, made even wider by the personal disunion caused by Adams and Jefferson. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions stated that: â€Å"no power over freedom of religion, freedom of speech, or freedom of the press being delegated by the   United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, all lawful powers respecting the same did of right remain, and were reserved to the States, or to the people.† (Commanger, 1947 p. 179) This meant that Jefferson, always distrusting of big government and in line with his belief in states’ rights, proclaimed that the federal government had no jurisdiction in enforcing the Alien and Sedition Acts as well as the fact that such restrictions on human freedom was in express contradiction to the Constitution and the ideals in which the American Revolution was fought in the first place. Everyone who had been locked up or fined under the Alien and Sedition Act was either set free or reimbursed by the federal government along with written apologies when Thomas Jefferson took over as President in March of 1801.The feud between Jefferson and Adams, made even larger by the ugliness of the 1800 Presidential election, lasted until 1812, when both were out of public office. Jefferson started a correspondence with Adams in what would become one of the most poignant and heart filled pieces of American literature. They both reminisced about their time together, hoping that this experiment in human democracy called the United States was actually going to work or not. Apologies were not given but rather regret that so much time has been lost to two people that were so important to the nation as well as to each other, were expressed in the correspondence. And what has to be one of the greatest coincidences in American history, two giants of American freedom who did not always practice what they preached; Adams’ enforcement of the Alien and Sedition Acts, and Jefferson personally owning more than 200 slaves for most of his lifetime, but still responsible for the expansion of human rights in America, died on the 50th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Each died while saying that the other still lives. They were both right in that respect.

Examining Factors Influencing Police Decision Making Criminology Essay

Examining Factors Influencing Police Decision Making Criminology Essay Police decision-making relies on a myriad of factors to include the individual officers characteristics, the environment the officer works in, the characteristics of the offender, the situation the officer finds themselves in, and the organization that influences them. In an attempt to control officer behavior and discretion, some police agencies have encouraged and/or mandated the increased hiring of minorities, women, and college educated officers. The belief is that officer characteristics such as race, sex, and education have an effect on police decision making and these characteristics will have a moderating influence on egregious behaviors such as excessive force, police shootings, and violations of civil rights. However, there is no compelling evidence to suggest that officer characteristics have such a strong influence to counter the other factors of situation, organization, and environment in decision-making. Since officer characteristics are a minor part of the complex fact ors influencing police behavior, there is no harm in promoting increased hiring of minorities, women, and college educated officers. These hiring policies do need to be seen as an attempt by the police agency to hire officers that share characteristics of the constituency that they serve. More study is needed to verify the influences of officer characteristics on police behavior and then, if the studies verify a connection, this research can substantiate the increased hiring practices of minorities, women, and college educated officers. INTRODUCTION There is a dearth of quasi-experimental and experimental designs into the factors that influence a police officers decision-making. Questions remain on how influential certain characteristics such as officer sex, race, age, education, and attitude can be on officer behavior. Of the existing studies that investigate the influences of officer characteristics, the results are mixed on how influential these characteristics are. However, there are numerous studies, while not experimental, that can help explain police behaviors through factors other than officer characteristics (National Research Council, 2004, pp. 34-35). By using these studies of other than officer characteristics, we can validate how strong or weak these factors are on officer behavior. More studies of officer characteristics on police behavior are needed in order to justify the sanctioned hiring of more females, minorities, and college educated officers in an attempt to control officer behavior. Some police administrat ors and policy makers think that officers with more education and a diverse background will make better decisions when interacting with the public and reduce the incidents of excessive force and violations of civil rights (Walker, 1998, p. 232) and this is the reason for implementing affirmative action hiring programs at some police agencies. Some factors put forth as possible behavioral influences on police officers have included citizen behaviors and attitudes, ecological influences, environmental factors, legal restraints, organizational factors, politics, and situational factors. While all are capable of influencing behavior, none answers the entire question of determining and predicting police behavior (National Research Council, 2004, pp. 214-216). One of the biggest obstacles in determining police behavior is overcoming ingrained conventional wisdom on police matters. There is too much attention placed on certain behaviors such as racial profiling, police shootings, use of force, and corruption without trying to understand the causes and definitions of such behaviors. These high-profile incidents receive quick fixes from politicians and police administrators without addressing the underlying causes. Theory based studies would be better used to explain and correct egregious displays of police behavior (Engel, 2002, pp. 269-270). There is a need for empirical based studies of police behavior in order to determine which factors, if any, influence the behavior of police officers, the use of discretion, and whether if police departments can control for these behaviors by emphasizing the hiring of women, minorities, and college educated officers (National Research Council, 2004, pp. 152-154). Based on the evidence so far, the influences on police behavior are too complex and varied to make a strong conclusion that certain policies such as hiring more minorities, women, and college educated officers can correct and/control individual police behavior. Although strong correlations exist between police behavior and situational, legal, organizational, and community factors, none represents a bellwether solution for influencing police behavior. With no conclusive evidence linking certain officer characteristics such as officer race, gender, and education to particular behaviors, policies emphasizing departmental solutions to behavioral issues should be maintained within certain contexts. Rather than being seen as a tool to influence officer behaviors and outcomes, these hiring practices should be seen as an attempt to correct previous discriminatory hiring practices, promote employee diversity, and as an endeavor to have a police agency reflect their constituency in order to bu ild trust and cooperation. Other factors such as police culture, situations, and police bureaucracy that have been shown to have more of an influence police behavior than officer characteristics should be given more focus in attempts to change officer behavior. DISCRETION AND POLICE BEHAVIOR The Importance of Discretion Tackling the issue of determining the basis of police behavior is not new but the complexity of the issue was realized from the beginning of such research as the American Bar Foundation Survey in the 1950s and its follow-on research by the Presidents Commission on Law Enforcement in 1967. Though these early studies spent considerable time in attempting to understand police discretion, they laid the groundwork for later studies on police behavior and raised several questions in the process (Walker, 1992, pp. 48-54). Questions such as the influence of officer characteristics and attitude on officer behavior are still not fully understood. These studies began with the emphasis on examining police behavior and public interaction with the belief that most officers performed their jobs according to the letter of the law. However, it was soon discovered in the course of these studies that the police exercised an enormous amount of discretion in applying the law (National Research Council, 2 004, pp. 22-23). The importance discretion has on police behavior cannot be overstated. A police officer, once out of training, operates with very little direct supervision and can be highly selective in demonstrating the power of the police. Even when answering service calls with ample evidence of a crime, there is no guarantee that the officer will take a formal action against a citizen. Almost every interaction an officer has with the public has a measure of discretion. Because of a lack of direct supervision, the actions of the officer cannot be constantly monitored to ensure adherence to the law and obedience of civil rights. On one hand, an officer decides to enforce the law and make the arrest. This action then comes under the review of the police department, courts, the media, and the public since arrest in the United States are a matter of the public record. On the other hand, an officer decides not to make an arrest by using discretion. The reasons for no arrest can vary from lack of eviden ce to the officers concern that her/his shift is almost over and does not want to stay late to book an arrest. Only the officer, the suspect, and perhaps some bystanders have knowledge of the non-arrest. Since none of these people occupy the officers chain of command or justice sub-system, this decision of non-arrest is not up for review except in rare circumstances (Goldstein, 1960, pp. 90-92). Goldstein (1960) noted that the use of police discretion in not making arrests are not reviewed except in cases where the police detained suspects in a crime and the suspect went on to commit further crimes and/or the non-arrest is seen as part of corruption. However, arrests and therefore the decisions to make that arrest are under review at every juncture of the criminal justice process, from booking through adjudication. Therefore, the burden of a good arrest and the discretion used to make the arrest is no longer on the officer put placed with the courts for review. Police officers use their discretion for a multitude of purposes, from being a crime fighter to doing their best to avoid as much work as possible. Allowing for the effects of being the subject of a study, officers still exhibit a wide range of behaviors depending on when, where, and with whom they choose to exercise their powers of detention, questioning, arrest, and force (Van Maanen, 1974, p. 122). Added to the everyday factors such as the situation in which the officer find himself or herself interacting with citizens, expectations of their agency and co-workers, and differences in location, the officer is also part of a public service organization. The police have competing mandates and responsibilities placed upon them by a fickle public and an even more fickle political system. These mandates and responsibilities are usually not clearly communicated or only communicated after an incident has taken place and the police response was not what the public expected of their agency. Discretion is used by police management to guide these expectations down to the beat officer and to adjust to a changing and mercurial political climate (National Research Council, 2004, p. 57). Studying Police Behavior and Discretion Discretion has been the focus of study since the 1950s and 1960s in an attempt to understand how officer decision making influences police behavior. More importantly, researchers were looking into how discretion factored into situations in which officers violated civil rights, arrest decisions, and racial discrimination (National Research Council, 2004, p. 64). While previous research focused on the police applying the law, it was thought that officers clearly applied the law fairly and non-discriminately when the law had been broken. However, follow-up studies revealed that discretion in how the officer applied the law was more important to decision making than once believed. Officers were shown to not make arrests even when the law was clearly broken and were making arrests for reasons other than law breaking i.e., citizen safety, disrespect, and case management (National Research Council, 2004, p. 70). Attempts to control discretion have been tried in different police agencies, often because of police shootings and other misapplications of deadly force. While most attempts to control or formalize discretion have met with mixed results, other such as in the aftermath of the Memphis police shootings have been successful in reducing police shootings and implementing other administrative controls (Fyfe, 1982, p. 72). The use of discretion carries with it a double-sided curse of being unavoidable in police work in a democratic political system. With no discretion, police officers would be heavy handed and legalistic but still exercising some type of preference, just with more subtlety and with obvious crimes being ignored and minor infractions being investigated. Attempts by police administrators to control discretion have failed (Aaronson et al., 1984, pp. 408-436) and even though it can encourage abuses, discretion carries with it the will of the people who are being policed. The Exercise of Police Arrest Power The actions of the police are based on the lawfulness and legitimacy of their actions in controlling the public. The public also has to recognize the legitimacy of the police and submit to these tenets in order to be policed. When there is conflict between the public and the police it is usually a result of the police not following the strictures set up under the law e.g., unlawful search and seizure, interrogations without Miranda warnings, and excessive force (National Research Council, 2004, pp. 5-6, 252). Various police agencies exercise discretion and arrest power in different ways based on the style of policing the agency utilizes. There are three styles of policing identified by Wilson (1968): the watchman, service, and legalistic. Discretion is used the most often under the watchman style since these types of agencies are primarily concerned with order maintenance. Officers using this style are most concerned with maintaining social control by suppressing illegal activities and disruptive behavior. Discretion is used along with arrest powers to persuade, threaten, and discourage potential lawbreakers (National Research Council, 2004, pp. 70-71). The legalistic police agency is the opposite of the watchman style with an emphasis on enforcing the law no matter how small the infraction may be. Legalistic agencies tend to have high arrest rates, issue more citations, and utilize the law to target and/or harass persons suspected of violating the law. The use of discretion is low for th ese types of departments since they tend to view infractions in more concrete terms and use arrest as a tool even for minor infractions. This type of full enforcement also constrains officer behavior and allows some amount of control over the officer by the agency. Police agencies that use a service style of policing are using both order maintenance and law enforcement while staying attuned to the desires of the community they serve. While less emphasis is placed on using arrest for even minor infractions, the service type of agency still uses arrest and discretion to enforce the laws that are important to the local community. Officer behavior is still controlled but not as much as under the legalistic style but also not given as much freedom as under the watchman style. However, discretion is still present in all three styles with varying degrees of arrest power implemented and/or encouraged by the agency in order to more closely adhere to the desired outcomes of the police agency. OFFICER CHARACTERISTICS Effects on Police Behavior It has been suggested that an officers psychological and attitudinal orientation influence the officers behavior when they interact with the public. This assumption deals with an officers traits, experiences, and attitudes (Terrill and Mastrofski, 2002, p. 218). One area that has drawn an increasing amount of attention from researchers is officer characteristics and the use of force. Research into the influences of officer education and experience has suggested that officer education and experience have a positive effect on the use of force in that officers with more experience and formal education are more likely to use alternate forms of citizen control. Officer education refers to formal education outside of police training and usually means some type of college or trade school education. Officer experience refers to the amount of years employed as a police officer. The research found that a more educated and experienced officer shows more restraint when applying force (Terrill an d Mastrofski, 2002, p. 244). Officer behavior can be explained by the situational factors officers find themselves in and by the attitude exhibited by the officer. However, the link between situational factors and officer behavior is stronger than the attitude link. While going against conventional wisdom, officer attitude has not been found to be a strong indicator of officer behavior and this holds true for the general population as well (Worden, 1989, p. 670). Situational and organizational factors have been found to be a more important source of officer decision making than attitudinal based factors (Worden, 1989, pp. 673-674). An officer is also heavily influenced by the legal factors involved when an officer encounters a citizen such as the citizens resistance to orders, officer and citizen safety, and evidence of a crime. Usually when an officer finds her or himself dealing with a situation that requires arrest or the use of force within a legal framework, they will behave accordingly rather than rely on officer attitude or other officer characteristics (Terrill and Mastrofski, 2002, pp. 233-235). The officers race has also been studied as a possible explanation for police behavior with the thinking that an officer of a minority background would interact with citizens of the same race differently and with greater understanding. Agencies have encouraged the hiring of more black officers with the expectation that black officers would improve relations between police and the black community and reduce the amount of bias held by officers against black citizens. However, before race or ethnicity can be examined as a possible source of behavior and a predictor of future behavior, other influential factors must be controlled for. These include length of the officers experience on the job, their level of education, characteristics of the suspect, and type of encounter in question. Studies such as Brown and Franks (2006) hold that officer race has an influence on arrest decisions and behavior but their study had to control for the above-mentioned factors. They found white officers were more likely to make arrests than black officers were but that black officers were more likely to arrest black suspects. Other research found that while there were differences in the attitudes of minority and white officers, African American officers arrested African American suspects more often and were more likely to use force against minority suspects than white officers (XXX) An officers gender has also been identified as a possible source of officer behavior. However, there has been no significant evidence to suggest that male and female officers behave differently in the course of their jobs even though it has been suggested that female officers would be less aggressive and rely more on persuasion and verbal tactics during suspect confrontations (National Research Council, 2004, p. 151). The few studies that showed a difference in officer behaviors based on gender were directed toward community policing and order maintenance situations. Engel et al. (2000) founds that female officers focus more on problem solving when confronted with issues during their shifts (National Research Council, 2004, p. 151). Female officers, when operating under the auspices of community policing, have been found to have a more positive attitude towards citizens and the goals of the community policing programs than do male officers (Skogan and Hartnett, 1997, pp. 239-242). Ma strofski et al. (2000) concluded that female officers also were more likely to honor a citizens request to control other citizens within the context of community policing (p. 335). Other than attitudes, differences between female and male officer bahvior during the course of their duties has not been shown. Female officers seem to exhibit the same bahviors as male officers when confronted with different situations and different behaviors exhibited by citizens. Whether these citizen inteactions required restraint, issuance of citations, force, or arrest, the actions of the female officers was very similar to those of male officers (Walker, Despite some differences in attitudes, research findings confirm that there are only very slight differences in on-the-job behavior between the sexes. Studies of police officers in several agencies have revealed that female and male officers responded to similar calls for service and encountered similar proportions of problem citizens (e.g., citizens who are intoxicated, angry, violent, etc.). Only slight-and nonstatistically significant-differences existed in the proportion of arrest and citations issued by male and female officers (for review, see Walker). Findings regarding officers use of deadly force, however, have been somewhat mixed. Studies have shown that male officers are involved in deadly force incidents more often than female officers, but female officers who are partnered with a male officer reacted similarly to their male partners when responding to violent confrontations (Walker). In addition, a study of police officers in Indianapolis Police Department and St. Petersburg Police Department during 1996-1997 found that male officers are more likely than female officers to respond positively to citizens requests to control another citizen (Mastrofski et al., 2000). Going Against Type, Styles of Officer Behavior Being part of a heavily bureaucratized and politicized organization, the police officer has the opportunity to depend upon a certain type of behavior in order to make their work enjoyable. A police officer is supervised closely and operates independently at the same time, utilizing discretion and experience to either patrol aggressively or only answer service calls. The intricate factors that influence decision-making include organizational pressures, territory coverage, survival, street code, group dynamics, and coping skills. Since the nature of patrol work can change from moment to moment and can only be generally predicted over the course of a shift, the behavior an officer exhibits can quickly change from an aggressive legalistic style to a laid back, emergency response style over the course of a shift (Van Maanen, 1974, pp. 120-121). Outside factors have an influence on officer behavior as strongly as internalized attitudes and beliefs. Because the police agency is heavily influenced by outside forces such as the law, bureaucratic control, politics, and public complaints, sometimes the officers behavior is pre-determined by such constraints (Herbert, 1998, pp. 361-364). An officer also has to hold themselves to an organizational ideal of being competent, moral, and safe (for self and fellow officers). Even if an officer exhibits the attributes of a hard-charger or a desk jockey, they are still expected to meet the minimum expectations of the group i.e., assist when called upon, show solidarity with fellow officers, and be safe (Herbert, 1998, pp. 355-361). SITUATIONAL FACTORS OF POLICE BEHAVIOR The Probability of Arrest Factors other than officer characteristics have been shown to be a better predictor of officer behavior in terms of arrest. Citizen initiated arrests and preferences have a stronger influence on arrest decisions than the preferences of the officer, who sometimes would prefer to be more lenient and possess more evidence when making an arrest decision. Seriousness of the crime, whether the suspect is known and/or related to the officer, and the amount of disrespect given to the officer are also factors that take the arrest decision beyond officer characteristics (Black, 1971, pp. 1104-1110). Suspect demeanor also has been shown to be a strong indicator of the chances of being arrested. An officer, no matter their attitude or other characteristics, will not usually subject themselves to disrespect and abuse at the hands of a citizen. Although situation specific, interaction between police and citizens is influenced by the behavior displayed by both parties, and an escalation of perceived disrespect by one party against the other is met with resistance by the other. There is also disagreement among officers on what construes disrespect, which adds to the difficulty in using suspect demeanor as an officer behavior predictor (Klinger, 1994, pp. 489-491). However, the correlation in suspect demeanor and chance of arrest is still a strong indicator of officer behavior and prediction (Worden Shepard, 1996, pp. 99-103). Other situational factors such as the mental health of a suspect and citizen requests have a much stronger effect on officer behavior than officer characteristics. Even though there may be a correlation on an officers education level in respect to the officers predilection to arrest a mentally disordered suspect (Engel and Silver, 2001, p. 247), officers have not been shown to disproportionately arrest mentally disordered persons based on mental health (Engel and Silver, 2001, pp. 245-248). An officer is usually not inclined to grant a citizens request to arrest another unless there is evidence of a crime committed. This holds true regardless of the citizens race, wealth, or social affiliation. However, Mastrofski et al. (2000) found that male officers, officers of limited experience, and officers with a passion for community policing were more apt to honor a request for arrest. Suspect Characteristics It has long been pre-supposed by the advocates of conventional wisdom that certain characteristics of the suspects that are immediately discernable such as age, race, sex, and social class had an influence on the officers decision to make an arrest or some other formal action. (EXPAND) ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS ON OFFICER BEHAVIOR The Influences of the Organization The influence of organizational factors on officer behavior is dependent upon the type of organization the officer is working in. Smith (1984) identified bureaucratic and professional agencies with four sub-categories identified by the level of bureaucracy and professionalism within the agency. High professionalism and high bureaucracy is legalistic, high professionalism with low bureaucracy is service, low professionalism with high bureaucracy is militaristic, and low professionalism with low bureaucracy is fraternal. Therefore, the behavior of the officer can be reasonably predicted based on the type of agency and that agencys definition of legal control (Smith, 1984, pp. 33-35). Organizational influences on officer behavior can also be seen when using expectancy theory. The organization, in this case police agency or department, instills certain expectations from its officers in regards to arrests, traffic stops, citations issued, etc. In the example used by Mastrofski et al. (1994) in their study of Pennsylvania police officers, DUI enforcement was the studied expectancy. Mastrofski et al. (1994) found that when the officers operated under the expectations of their agencies, they usually complied whether the expectations were for high or minimal enforcement. The characteristics of the individual officers did not play a significant role except for a small number of rate busters who bucked the system and made significantly more arrests for DUI (Mastrofski et al., 1994, pp. 142-145). Organizational factors have been shown to have the ability to change officer behavior when there has been directed action against identified behavior, usually in response to police abuses or scandal. An example of this occurred when the Memphis police department made a concerted effort to reduce the amount of police shootings since the rate of deadly shootings in Memphis was disproportionate when compared to other, larger cities (Fyfe, 1982, pp. 712-717). The reasons for shooting given by the Memphis officers were not in agreement with reasons given by the comparison city of New York since Memphis officers showed a predilection to using deadly force for property crime offenses (Fyfe, 1982, pp. 715-716) while New York officers did not. The Memphis police addressed this issue by instituting a more stringent deadly force policy and officer survival training in an attempt to reduce the shootings incidents. An organizations influence on officer behavior can also be seen in the supervisory styles of police mid-level management. Engel (2001) identified different supervisory styles among police sergeants and lieutenants identified as traditional, innovative, supportive, and active (pp. 347-350). While each style has a direct influence on the officers they are supervising, it is also interesting to note the attitudes of the supervisors themselves when the distribution is included for sex, race, rank, age, experience, and education. Engel (2001) found that half of the traditional supervisors were female, this may be attributed to their use of rules, and regulations to keep officers in line and under control since female supervisors may have an issue with perceived power by subordinates (pp. 350-351). COMMUNITY FACTORS ON POLICE BEHAVIOR Patrolling the Neighborhood The area in which a police officer patrols has an effect on their behavior. This depends on the social, economic, and attitudinal makeup of the local residents of the neighborhood in question. There are also other environmental factors influencing police behavior. These include community interaction, past history of policing the neighborhood, the local politics, and the dominant area culture (National Research Council, 2004, pp. 155-156). The influence of the neighborhood is strong on potential police behavior dependent upon the type of neighborhood that is served by the police. Smith (1986) found that police behave differently in higher status neighborhoods than they do in lower status neighborhoods. For example, the police are more prone to stop and question a suspicious person in a higher status neighborhood than in lower status, less racially heterogeneous neighborhoods (pp. 338-339). Neighborhood conditions also affect police behavior. Klinger (1997) found that officers come to view deviant behaviors as normal if they are exposed to the behavior in neighborhoods that are economically disadvantaged. Rather than acting as service providers in these types of neighborhoods, officers quickly learn to prioritize the crimes in terms of urgency and the need to respond (pp. 298-300). Crank (1990) also found differences in officer behaviors in terms of motivation to arrest in rural and urban areas. Not only are there differences between police behaviors within a municipal area, there are also differences in behavior between rural and urban police with the rural police officer being more prone to make arrests for discretionary offenses (pp. 185-187). DISCUSSION Police agencies, the public, policy makers, and politicians have long had the desire to recruit and employ officers whose behavior is beyond reproach. An officer who made the correct decision in every instance without regard to a suspects race, sex, economic status, or mental health would be highly regarded and emulated. When the officer was confronted with situations that required the application of force and/or restraint, they would do so correctly and with the proper legal justifications. It is thought that the use of officer discretion would also be properly applied and controlled by the first line supervisors and directed by the agencies themselves based on community need. Agencies believe they could partially meet these goals if they emphasize the hiring of women, minorities, and college educated officers. However, due the complexity of police work and the multitude of influences such as situational, organizational, and environmental factors, shaping officer behaviors would be very difficult indeed. As was shown in numerous studies above, these other influences besides officer characteristics, often have a stronger influence over officer behavior than the officers own attitude, race, sex, and/or education. CONCLUSION The emphasis on hiring more minorities, women, and college-educated officers should continue because these programs are causing no harm and they are a reflection on the desires of the community that is being policed. No study has shown a negative effect of having more minorities, women, and college-educated officers on a particular police force. However, no study has shown a significant difference in police behaviors based on sex or race so more research is needed in an attempt to understand a connection between officer behavior and officer characteristics.

Lucent :: essays research papers

LUCENT A Mathematician Rajiv Laroia joined Lucent’s bell labs in 1992. He wanted to make wireless data accessible to everyday people thus allowing them to send e-mail, listen to the radio all at the same time without denting the budget. Rajiv Laroia brought his five-person team and went out to start Flarion company. Lucent hopes this start up company by Rajiv Laroia will foster growth for them. Some people might ask how would Lucent benefit from this small start up company. Rajiv Laroia hopes that Flarion could look for new technology in hopes that Lucent might one-day buy them back after they start becoming profitable. In this way, the company hopes to strengthen an Achilles’ heel of any big firm: the effort to capitalize on â€Å"disruptive† â€Å"white space† advances that buck the status quo. (1) How’s does a company like Lucent stay ahead of competition with so many growing areas of technology? As mentioned before by fostering other company’s that are into new technology then buying them back, and in the last year Lucent has launched 24 other efforts designed to complement or compete with established business. In this way Lucent can always stay on top of the technology edge. Lucent has made around 150 million dollars from outsourcing. Around 1994 when some of the Technology Company were losing money they started to slash research and development costs. To help cut costs Lucent started exchanging ideas with the goal of getting to the market more quickly. This idea to go beyond existing product lines where Lucent was weak will enhance new growth and foster fresh ideas.

Leader of my life: my mother Essay

An influential leader in my life is my mother because she exemplifies a godly woman in many ways. She is a whole person. She is a cooperative leader in the home. She also understands and accepts her role, despite cultural trends and pressure. She models authentic spirituality. She is the keeper of intimate feelings. She demonstrates and teaches compassion. She desires to complete duties with her heart. Her strong faith in God is contagious in my life. As a whole person, my mother is beautiful, healthy, and wealthy in God. Her beauty radiates from her modest and humble personality and her tastefully modest clothing style. Her desire for nutrition and personal hygiene is key to her amazing health. She knows her wealth comes from God because he blessed her with a strong Christian husband and three daughters. She gives me a beautiful reminder to remember who I am and whose I am. My mother is also a cooperative leader at home. She understands God’s design for marriage. The love and respect she gives to my father is an example of that leadership. She demonstrates cooperation through building a healthy marriage in partnership with my father. Despite trends and pressure from culture, my mother understands and accepts her role as a godly woman. Growing up, my mother taught me the dominant values of Christianity so I can carry those values into my adult life and be a Christian witness to others. She holds to her values at work as an anatomy professor, and sometimes she gets ridiculed for her faith, but she stands strong. My mother models authentic spirituality daily. She understands what is at stake, and I am willing to do anything to stand up for my faith. She invests time to strengthen her walk with Christ, and has instilled that in me as well. Another leadership quality my mother holds is her ability to never share the feelings, fears, and dreams I express to her. She is an excellent listener and provides me with spiritual advice. I like to think that I am a confidant and can be trusted by those who need a listening ear. Throughout my life, my mother has demonstrated and taught compassion. She is the source of my care, protection, nourishment, and sacrifice. Adopted at birth, my mother has sufficiently provided for me out of love. She guards  me with her life to keep me on the right path. She taught me to love healthy and nutritious food so I can do the same for my children. My mother has also made an abundance of sacrifices to make sure I live by God’s design. Finally, my mother desires lasting results with wisdom, understanding, and knowledge. She utilizes her wisdom by teaching me the ways of life. She rejoices as I apply her teachings in my life and she understands me. The abundance of knowledge my mother has supplied me with continuously fills my life with rare and beautiful treasures. My mother continually molds me into the person God intends. She shares a special partnership with God that nobody can take away from her. My mother is an influential leader in my life as an example of a godly woman. She is pure and whole in the eyes of God. She demonstrates cooperation by understanding and accepting her roles against cultural trends and pressure. She is a model of authentic spirituality, and provides a listening ear. The compassion she beholds is contagious, and she desires to complete duties with her heart. This is how my mother models leadership.

My ans to bullying

Primary and secondary schools children have been or are being bullied in one way or the order, by the time they reach their teens, fewer than half will tell a parent and at the very most, only a third will tell a teacher. Some children may get over an episode of bullying quickly but for others, the damage can go on for years. Children who have been bullied may suffer personality changes, can do poorly at school, may get ill, depressed or sometimes, even kill themselves. Bullying interferes with children's learning, concentration, and desire to go to school.† Bullying can be defined as the ongoing abuse of another person through physical or mental torture. To make matters worse this torture is conducted in the presence of others. The humiliation felt by the victim is hard to understand if you have never been bullied. If it happens over a long period of time it can have devastating effects on a young person’s mental health. There are a whole lot of myths about bullying such as: â€Å"It’s a fact of life†¦ everyone is bullied at some stage† of which to me is false. Bullying, is â€Å"physical or psychological intimidation (that) occurs repeatedly over time to create an ongoing pattern of harassment and abuse,† appears to cut across all the demographics of school size, place, and wealth. Bullies exist in schools big and small, urban and rural, rich and poor. â€Å"Their targets tend to have lasting emotional scars and low self-esteem,† Education Daily reported in October 1998. â€Å"Ten percent of eighth-grade students stay home at least one day a month for fear of another student.† Not only does bullying harm both its intended victims and the perpetrators,† say Limber and Nation, â€Å"it also may affect the climate of schools and, indirectly, the ability of all students to learn to the best of their abilities. Bullying deprives children of their rightful entitlement to go to school in a safe, just, and caring environment. There are many definitions of bullying, but most consider it to be, deliberately hurtful including aggression repeated often over a period of time difficult for victims to defend themselves against.   Bullying can take many forms, but three main types are: physical – hitting, kicking, taking belongings, there are verbal bullying which includes name calling, insulting, making offensive remarks, and Indirect bullying which includes   spreading nasty stories about someone, exclusion from social groups, being made the subject of malicious rumours, sending malicious e mails or text messages on mobile phones. Name calling is the most common direct form. This may be because of individual characteristics, but pupils can be called nasty names because of their ethnic origin, nationality or colour; sexual orientation; or some form of disability. Extent of the Problem: Various reports and studies have established that approximately 15% of students are   either bullied regularly or are initiators of bullying behavior (Olweus, 1993). Direct bullying seems to increase through the elementary years, peak in the middle school/junior high school years, and decline during the high school years. However, while direct physical assault seems to decrease with age, verbal abuse appears to remain constant. School size, racial composition, and school setting (rural, suburban, or urban) do not seem to be distinguishing factors in predicting the occurrence of bullying. Finally, boys engage in bullying behavior and are victims of bullies more frequently than girls. There was bullying in all schools, although a comparison with earlier work indicates a reduction during the 1990s. Although bullying can occur during the journey to or from school, eg extortion or theft of possessions such as mobile phones, most typically it takes place in school. It is more likely where adult surveillance is intermittent. In primary schools, up to three-quarters of bullying takes place in the playground. In secondary schools, it is also most likely outdoors, but classrooms, corridors and toilets are common sites. Both boys and girls bully others. Usually, boys are bullied by boys, but girls are bullied by girls and boys. The most common perpetrators are individual boys or groups of several boys. Children who bully others can come from any kind of family, regardless of social class or cultural background. Usually one pupil starts bullying a victim. There are often other pupils present. These may: help the bully by joining in help the bully by watching, laughing and shouting encouragement remain resolutely uninvolved help the victim directly, tell the bullies to stop, or fetch an adult. Any child can be bullied, and although none of these characteristics can excuse it, certain factors can make bullying more likely: lacking close friends in school being shy an over-protective family environment being from a different racial or ethnic group to the majority being different in some obvious respect – such as stammering having Special Educational Needs or a disability behaving inappropriately, intruding or being a ‘nuisance’ possessing expensive accessories such as mobile phones or computer games . Some victims may behave passively or submissively, signaling to others that they would not retaliate if attacked or insulted. They may benefit from assertiveness training. Others may behave aggressively, sometimes provoking others to retaliate. Some pupils are both bullies and victims; approximately 20% of victims also act as bullies although tending not to direct their aggression towards their own aggressors. They may come from disturbed family backgrounds and are likely to need special help in changing their behavior. Verbal bullying is common amongst boys and girls. Boys experience more physical violence and threats than girls, although physical attacks on girls by other girls are becoming more frequent. Girls tend to use indirect methods which can be more difficult to detect. Being bullied tends to decrease with age probably because older pupils are developing coping skills. In addition, older pupils meet fewer people who are physically stronger than them. However, attitudes to victims tend to become less sympathetic over the age range 8 to 15 years, especially in older boys. Physical bullying declines with age, but indirect bullying increases. The risks of bullying to the victims Victims may be reluctant to attend school and are often absent. They may be more anxious and insecure than others, having fewer friends and often feeling unhappy and lonely. Victims can suffer from low self-esteem and negative self-image, looking upon themselves as failures – feeling stupid, ashamed and unattractive.   Victims may present a variety of symptoms to health professionals, including fits, faints, vomiting, limb pains, paralysis, hyperventilation, visual symptoms, headaches, stomach aches, bed wetting, sleeping difficulties and sadness. Being bullied may lead to depression or, in the most serious cases, attempted suicide. It may lead to anxiety, depression, loneliness and lack of trust in adult life. Pupils’ attitudes to bullying Pupils’ understanding varies with age. Infants may confuse bullying with fighting and nasty experiences generally; juniors develop a more mature understanding. But difficulties in identifying bullying in 4 to 7 year olds should not prevent schools taking action. About 75-80% of pupils in surveys say they would not join in, or would like to help a bullied child. Fewer say they would actually help. About one fifth of pupils are less sympathetic. Girls seem more supportive of victims than boys, but not necessarily more likely to intervene.   Families are told about bullying more often than teachers; older pupils are less likely to tell at all. A ‘culture of silence’ persists; many victims – a majority of secondary-aged pupils –have not told anyone in authority of the bullying. The 1997 survey found that 30% of victims had not told anyone. Often teachers and parents need to take steps to uncover bullying. Most victims who do tell teachers or parents describe the outcome as positive. Victims need help and support. However, a small minority of victims reported bullying getting worse, especially when teachers were told. It is important that claims of bullying are taken seriously; a half-hearted response might make the problem worse. Sexual bullying is impacted on both genders. Boys are also victims – of girls and other boys. A case of proven sexual assault is likely to lead to the exclusion of the perpetrator. In general, sexual bullying is characterized by: abusive name calling looks and comments about appearance, attractiveness, emerging puberty inappropriate and uninvited touching sexual innuendoes and propositions pornographic material, graffiti with sexual content in its most extreme form, sexual assault or rape.   Sexual bullying can also be related to sexual orientation. Pupils do not necessarily have to be lesbian, gay or bi-sexual to experience such bullying. Just being different can be enough. A survey of 300 secondary schools in England and Wales found 82% of teachers aware of verbal incidents, and 26% aware of physical incidents. Almost all schools had anti-bullying policies, but only 6% referred to this type. Factors hindering schools in challenging homophobic bullying include staff inexperience and parental disapproval. Eradicating Bullying In Schools: Bullying is a problem that occurs in the social environment as a whole. The bullies' aggression occurs in social contexts in which teachers and parents are generally unaware of the extent of the problem and other children are either reluctant to get involved or imply do not know how to help. Given this situation, effective interventions must involve the entire school community rather than focus on the perpetrators and victims alone. Olweus (1993) emphasize the need to develop whole-school bullying policies, implement curricular measures, improve the school ground environment, and empower students through conflict resolution, peer counseling, and assertiveness training. Olweus (1993) details an approach that involves interventions at the school, class, and individual levels. Bullying should be discussed as part of the curriculum, but teachers also need general strategies to deal with the problem. Whilst they should try strategies such as those described below, schools may find that stronger measures are needed in the more serious and persistent cases.   Where other strategies do not resolve the problem, permanent exclusion may be justified in the most serious and persistent cases, particularly where violence is involved. The Department’s updated guidance for local education authority exclusion appeal panels makes clear that pupils responsible for violence or threatened violence should not normally be re-instated. One of the strategies is including it in the school’s anti-bullying policy – so pupils know discrimination is wrong and the school will act covering it in inset days on bullying in general guaranteeing confidentiality and appropriate advice to lesbian and gay pupils challenging homophobic language exploring issues of diversity and difference – discussing what schools and society can do to end discrimination exploring pupils’ understanding of their use of homophobic language – they may not understand the impact. Parents can also help to stop children from bullying others in schools. For instance parents should talk to your child, explaining that bullying is unacceptable and makes others unhappy discourage other members of your family from bullying behaviour or from using aggression or force to get what they want. show your child how to join in with other children without bullying make an appointment to see your child's class teacher or form tutor; explain to the teacher the problems your child is experiencing; discuss with the teacher how you and the school can stop them bullying others regularly check with your child how things are going at school give your child lots of praise and encouragement when they are co-operative or kind to other people. Conclusion: Bullying is a serious problem that can dramatically affect the ability of students to progress academically and socially. A comprehensive intervention plan that involves all students, parents, and school staff is required to ensure that all students can learn in a safe and fear-free environment.   There are key points to consider when dealing with bullying as a teacher, Never ignore suspected bullying ,don’t make premature assumptions listen carefully to all accounts, several pupils saying the same does not necessarily mean they are telling the truth adopt a problem-solving approach which moves pupils on from justifying themselves follow-up repeatedly, checking bullying has not resumed. The curriculum can be used to raise awareness about bullying and the anti-bullying policy increase understanding for victims, and help build an anti-bullying to teach pupils how constructively to manage their relationships with others. Through the curriculum it is possible to explore such issues as: why do people bully each other? what are the effects of bullying on the bullied, on bullies, and on bystanders? what can we do to stop bullying? There are now many videos that illustrate bullying, for example Sticks and Stones (secondary) and The Trouble with Tom (primary). Pupils can explore different characters’ perspectives and suggest anti-bullying strategies. REFERENCES Nan Stein in Bully proof: (1996) A Teacher's Guide on Teasing and Bullying published jointly by the Wellesley College Center for Research on Women and the National Education Association Professional Library. Olweus, D (1993). Bullying at School: What we know and what we can do. Cambridge, MA Blackwell.