Disabilities

The issue of discrimination against old people and persons with disabilities is an old age phenomenon. For centuries these groups of people have had to live with stigma and many a times forced t live their lives in seclusion for instance in the bible stories are told of how leapers were forced from their homes to be beggars in the streets as if this was not enough, bells were tied around their necks so that everywhere they would go, people will be warned of their presence by the sounding bells and were required to take-off.In ancient Africa, children born with disabilities were killed and thrown away in the forest because they were considered bad one. All these treatment by the dominant groups on the marginalized groups was informed by myths. In that it was believed that people's with disability would bring bad luck or â€Å"infect† others in the community who did not have such disabilities.And for centuries this continued until the dawn of â€Å"the age of rights† wher e it came to be realized that all human beings by virtue of their being humans had all human beings by virtue of their being humans had in alienable God given rights that no man was allowed to take away (L. J. mefarlane. Theory and practice of human rights) The author went on to say about human rights†. They must be distinguished from moral rights in possessing the following characteristics (a) University (b) Individuality (c) Paramount ability(d) Enforceability This age of rights culminated in the â€Å"universal declaration on the rights of man† and the UN charter on the rights of man† This two characters then informed many bill of rights of many states in the world today including â€Å"The Canadian charter on human rights† Much though that these rights are clearly s pelt in many international and local documents on human rights the old and people with disability continue to bare the brunt of stigmatization and this surely should urgently be brought to a stop.this paper boards on the thesis that discrimination of any kind against any person and specifically the old and people with disabilities is an infringement on their fundamentals rights and freedoms as first adumbrated in the universal declaration on the rights of man. It will also compare and contrast the treatment. The international labor organization defines disability in terms of tis effect upon a persons ability to secure and maintain gainful employment.In convention 1 order 50, of the international labor organization states that a person with disability means one whose prospects of securing, obtaining and a draining in employment is induced or as a result of mental or physical impairment. A careful analysis of this definition can lead to confusion it would also means that ILO is in useful discriminative. It would also mean that old people do suffer from disability an allegation that may not be always true many old people can still work and fend for themselves without need ing employment.Disability can best and without discrimination defined to mean:-An impairment of either of either, physical, sensory or mental nature including vision, hearing or physical impairment which has a longterm effect on a persons usual day to day activities. So that given the effect that comes with old age like loss of memory, poor vision comes with old age like loss of memory, poor vision could also fall under the ambit of disability.Unfortunately even government agencies do discriminate against peoples with disabilities from how they implement program mes like adjustment orders to make the lives of these people much easier, to how they implement government policies leaves a lot to bee desired. But then should all facts that may seem to be discrimination deemed as such? Because there are actions that can pass for discrimination but may not necessarily be motivated by discrimination.A good case in point is the latimer case where latimer, a farmer who was working a spread in saskat chewan killed her 12 year old daughter Tracy in 1993. His statement to the police was such that she loved his daughter and could not watch her suffer from severe cerebral palsy. Latimas was subsequently charged with 1st degree murder which was later reduced to 2nd degree murders. justice Ted Noble broke a new legal grand by distinguishing mercy killing which is allowed anyway and cold blooded murder in so doing latrines was given a constitutional exemption.He was convicted though because he had committed a crime. Acts such as this one are not motivated by discrimination or stigma associated with having a child with disabilities but â€Å"love† in fact in the present case, the judge considered latimer as a â€Å"loving and protective parent† who wanted to end his daughter suffering. Much that latimers actions can be somehow be â€Å"excused†, why would people have to think that people with disabilities would people have to think that people with disabilit ies are constantly â€Å"suffering†, and thus the need by other people to end their suffering?why cant we allow people with disability lead independent lives? The answer again lies with the perceptions that the dominant group has people with disabilities. On the other hand the leilani must case can only be contrasted with the forgone case of latimer in the present case, Muir was a child who was unwanted and neglected by her mother an alcoholics. the mother took her to mental school at age eleven. the mother also ordered her sterilization during the sterilization she was not informed that she was actually being sterilized but she thought she was having her appendix removed.She later discovered that she could not sire children and sued. She was awarded damages. the case in point suggest that persons with disabilities should not be allowed to give birth. This is pursuant to the now repealed sterilization act of Alberta coupled with the fact that a person with disability consent is not required where matters dealing with their bodies is concerned or really outrageous and discriminatory granted the confinement of Muir led or amounted to loss of reputation, loss of libertymachinery be put in place for purposes of evaluating those considerations. Here government in as much as they are charged with the responsibility of ensuring adequate provisions for the rights of persons with disability can claim lack of adequate resources and seek to absolve themselves from liability. This again has mischievous connotations which also violate the rights of persons with disability it is note worthy therefore that the essence of budgetary provisions† is a ploy to run away from responsibility.Granted, the character would be illusory if the provisions enshrined there in could be ignored because it was convenient to the administration. But courts in Canada should be applauded since they have always held that the â€Å"considerations† cannot be used to justify violat ions of rights of persons with disabilities. In Nova Scotia V Martin it was held for instance that despite the concerns raised with respect to â€Å"budgetary considerations† defenses, the defense is raised often and primarily in the context of disability discrimination cases.Senior citizens have not been spared either and as earlier stated they may fall under the bracket persons with disabilities because old age comes with certain effects like hearing difficulties, poor visions, mental that senility comes with old age all proved by science old peoples normal participation in day to day activities all these has a close nexus as to why they are held with low opinions, that's why they are held with low opinions, that's why they are deemed to be less engaged.the myths that they are less aged could well be founded because more often than not, the senior citizens would citizens would be found in care homes where they are taken care of by welfare but this is not totally true becaus e many old people have defied age to climb the everest mountains ans so on. About mandatory retirement, this is purely discriminative because under the law much that there is a retirement age, many people of retirement age have the energy to carry on. Besides it would be tantamount to say that on attainment of retirement age, one is old and incapable of productivity.Well is sheer discrimination. this kind of draconian treatment has led to untold suffering among the persons with disabilities. For one it has led to difficulty in access to employment because they are viewed to as being not productive as compared to normal bodied persons. It has also led to poverty or likely hood of the same because many a times there people are confined. take the Muir case for instance her life was almost shuttered leading to loss of productive years, reputation besides suffering humiliation. It has also led to discontent among person with disabilities.The welfare system has also suffered given draconi an policies like â€Å" budgetary considerations† All these can also result to problems of recreation and leisure for persons with disabilities as little regard as given to them as human beings. To change their status quo, lobby groups have been formed to press for better treatment. the senior citizens and persons with disabilities have also gone against the grain to prove the system wrong e. g. Muir who went on to pass the IQ test and lives a much happier life. These groups have also sought redress in court especially invoking section 15(1) of the Canadian charter on human rights.

Belonging: Narrator and Sense

Humans are constantly in search for belonging, it is something vital to our existence. A sense of belonging emerges from our ability to establish connections with place, people and culture. However when these aspects are challenged, we find out if we truly belong or not. Such ideas are explored in the texts, ‘The Ride of Zhu Bao Sheng’, a third person short story by Nick Long, and ‘Big World’, a first person short story by Tim Winton, which both explore the idea of belonging being challenged and how this affects one’s sense of belonging. Our sense of belonging is derived from the connections to the places around us. One’s sense of belonging is challenged when changes or barriers arise between our connection with place, people and culture. In both ‘The Ride of Zhu Bao Sheng’ and ‘Big World’, we see the protagonists’ sense of belonging being challenged. Nick Long asserts that Zhu does not belong in the place he is in by using irony, making it clear Zhu feels a lack of belonging. This idea is shown through the line, â€Å"He was alone in this place. True, the town is full of people†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Here the obvious use of irony is used to emphasize Zhu’s detachment from the rest of the town caused by his sense of belonging being challenged after he moved from his ‘hometown’. Inevitably with effort, he makes a connection to the place. This is evident by the line â€Å"almost drunk with the scent of the acacias, and of the dust, and of this new landscape. † This dreamy state implies that a sense of belonging comes after we establish healthy connections with place. The unnamed narrator in ‘Big World’ tells of the differences between himself and his best high school friend in a confessional tone, saying â€Å"Unlike him, I’m not really from here. It’s not hosing blood that s**ts me off – it’s Angelus itself; I’m going nuts here. Unlike Zhu, the narrator chooses not to build a connection to the place, instead he intends to escape Angelus, evident in the line â€Å"f**k it, we’re outta here†. The use of the hyperbole, ‘I’m going nuts here’ shows that even after spending years in a place, one may never establish a strong connection with place to develop a healthy sense of solidarity with a community. We learn that when one’s sense of belonging is challenged, one can face the challenge and still establish a sense of belonging. A sense of belonging to place is closely intertwined with the people within that place. The relationships formed around an individual are the cornerstones of their sense of community and belonging. A sense of belonging is often reliant of the relationships we build; these connections may determine our own self-perception on how we fit the world around us. We see the importance of relationships in ‘The Ride of Zhu Bao Sheng’ as he felt no sense of belonging. Zhu was challenged by not knowing anyone, evident in the line â€Å"Who will I talk to? There was nobody to answer the questions. † The rhetorical question reinforces the idea that he could only talk to himself. However, after speaking to a girl, he felt a sense of a relationship, which is reinforced by the change in tone and the use of a simile. â€Å"Zhu didn’t understand the words, but was amazed by the sound of them. Her voice was airy and light, like the song of a small bird†. Throughout the text, the language had been pessimistic, this contrast in tone, was the direct result of a relationship formed, in essence, a sense of belonging had been formed. Similarly in ‘Big World’, the importance of connection to people is clear. The narrator felt a strong sense of belonging when around his best friend, Biggie, shown by the constant anaphora of the inclusive pronouns that runs throughout the entire text, ‘we’ and ‘us’. An example of this extensive use is â€Å"We fried. We’re idiots of a different species but we’re both bloody idiots. The repetition of inclusive pronouns shows the narrators strong connection with Biggie, which displays a strong sense of companionship when he is around biggie. It is only when this sense of companionship is challenged, that the narrator will know how strong this companionship actually is. We learn that challenges that arise in many forms and can be overcome to see what lies ahead for one’s sense of belonging. Belonging is derived from our sense of connection with people and place. It is also derived from one’s culture. It is harder for those of a minority in a dominant culture to thrive in terms of their sense of belonging. A minority must conform to the dominant culture in order to establish a healthy sense of belonging with the dominant culture. Zhu’s culture and ethnicity is considered to my a minority. Zhu experiences a barrier to belonging with the dominant culture. It writes, â€Å"But they were not Chinese people, and he could not speak to people who were not Chinese. Nobody ever taught him. † Zhu’s culture has restricted him from communicating with those outside his culture. Being in a situation where one is a minority, one will find it very difficult to build connections with those of the dominant group. Conformity is needed, which Zhu gives in to, eventually attempting to speak English, the dominant language. In contrast to Zhu, the narrator of Big World’ does not have such issues with culture. The narrator’s culture is tightly bonded with that of the dominant culture allowing his sense of belonging to excel. Such connections with culture can be seen through heavy Australian idioms as Winton writes, â€Å"Mag wheels, a lurid spray job like something off a Yes album and a filthy great mattress in the back, a chick magnet, that’s what we want . The heavily idiomatic language suggests a strong sense of association with the dominant culture, in effect, provides a strong sense of belonging. We learn that society will force you to conform in order to belong. When a person conforms to a culture, a sense of belonging to place and people will come with it. From the reading of ‘The Ride of Shu Bao Sheng’, we learn that one’s attachment to place is essential to their sense of belonging due to the human condition to want to form connections with place. This has been reinforced by ‘Big World’, where the narrator is challenged and could not form a connection with the place, resulting in a lack of belonging in that aspect. Both texts have shown me the degree at which the people surrounding and individual will influence their sense of belonging and when barriers arise, with effort, these challenges can be overcome to establish a stronger sense of belonging. In addition to these notions of belonging, both texts have solid but contrasting views on belonging to place, however serve the same purpose as important aspects of belonging. In conclusion, the notions of belonging such as place, people and culture are all intertwined and are thus the cornerstones of ones sense of belonging.

New Media Convergence and Audience Fragmentation and Programme Content in International Broadcasting

New Media Convergence and Audience Fragmentation and Programme Content in International Broadcasting The new media technologies have been referred to as the communication revolution due to the immense changes they have brought to mass communication and social lifestyles in past decade or so. The expression ‘new media’ has been in use since the 1960s and has had to encompass an expanding and diversifying set of applied communication technologies such the it is somehow impracticable to tell just what the ‘new media’ comprise. As far as the essential features of new media are concerned, however, the main ones seem to be: their interconnectedness; their accessibility to individual users as senders or receivers; their interactivity; their multiplicity of use and open-ended character; and their ubiquity and almost limitless extended located-ness. The new media could be said to have brought a communications revolution because it seems to have brought a revolt against mass communication and all that it used to stand for. The two main driving force of this communications revolution are satellite communication and computer technologies. The key to the immense power of the computer as a communication device lies in the process of digitalization that allows information of all kinds in all formats to be carried with the same efficiency and also in a multiplex. New means of transmission by cable, satellite and radio have immensely increased the capacity to transmit. New means of storage and retrieval including the personal video recorder, the mobile phone, CD-ROM, compact disc, DVD, etc, have also expanded the range of possibilities, and even the remote control device has played a part. The many possibilities of ‘media-making’ (camcorders, PCs, printers, cameras, etc, especially in digital form) have changed immensely the practice of journalism whether print or broadcast, such that the amateur or the professional are being bridged. There are also new kinds of ‘quasi-media’ such as computer games and virtual reality devices which seem to be overlapping with the mass media in their culture and in the satisfaction of use. The communications revolution has being of benefit to traditional media and the audience due mainly to the interactivity that has become possible. What is the nature of convergence? Convergence is the coming together of different technologies, the fusion of two or more technologies to form something new and different, something that has attributes of each but is altogether unique. The new technologies and products that result from convergence are greater than the sum of the original parts, and the two most powerful and pervasive technologies – information and media are converging. The result of convergence has been called ‘techno-fusion’. What are the differences between the old and the new? Today the differences between the old and new are difficult to distinguish partly because some media forms are now distributed across different types of transmission channels, reducing the original uniqueness of form and experience in use. Also, the increasing convergence of technology, based on digitalization, can only reinforce this tendency. Thirdly, globalization has reduced the distinctiveness of domestic content and institutions and as such content and practices are becoming global or universal though some are domesticated variants of the global. Nevertheless, there are some clear differences in terms of physical and psychosocial characteristics, in terms of perceived trust and credibility for example. Differences are obvious concerning freedom and control where the new seems to be freer and less controlled especially by government. Secondly, differences are clear concerning what each is good for and the perceived uses by individual audience members. What is New Media? New media rely on digital technologies, allowing for previously separate media to converge. Media convergence is defined as a phenomenon of new media and this can be explained as digital media. The idea of new media captures both the development of unique forms of digital media, and the remaking of more traditional media forms to adopt and adapt to the new media technologies. Convergence captures the development futures of old media and merges it with new media. Blogs, and Podcasts are all part of new media. MySpace and Facebook are part of social media (also known as viral marketing), which is a branch of new media. What is new about the new media? It is pertinent at this point to understand that a medium is not just an applied technology for transmission of certain symbolic content or of linkage among people but that it also embodies a set of social relations that interact with features of the new technology. There are some evidences that mass media have changed from the past two or three decades from the days of one-way, one-directional and undifferentiated flow to an undifferentiated mass audience due to certain features of new technology. What is new is basically due to the fact of digitalization and convergence. Digitalization is the process by which texts can be reduced to binary form and used in production, distribution and storage. Convergence is the digital linkage and symbiosis between media forms in terms of organization, distribution, reception and regulation. Mcquail (2006) has defined convergence as the process of coming together or becoming more alike of media technologies due to digitalization. The new media transcends the limit of traditional print and broadcast in the following ways: ? It enables many-to-many conversations ?It enables the simultaneous reception, alteration and redistribution of cultural products ? It dislocates communicative action beyond national boundaries bringing in the ‘death of the distance’ across the world More succinctly, what is new about the new media may be the combination of interactivity with innovative features such as, the unlimited range of content and content format, the scope of audience reach, and the global nature of communication. Other features include, that the new media are as much private and public communication and that their operation is not typically professional or bureaucratically organized to the same degree as the mass media. Another feature of the new media is that the boundaries between publisher, producer, distributor, consumer and reviewer of content are blurring, leading to a general meltdown of roles that may result in the emergence of separate, more specialized institutional complexes of media skills and activities. So, what is new? ?Digitalization ?Convergence Divergence from mass communication ?Adaptation of media roles ?Interactivity and fragmentation of audience ?Fragmentation of media organization and institution ?Reduced control Categories of new media While new media technological forms continue to multiply and diversify, there are as at now four main categories. ?Interpersonal communication media ?Interactive play media ?Information search media ?Collective participatory media Key ch aracteristics of new media The following are the key characteristics unique to the new media across the four categories. Interactivity ?Sociability ?Media richness ?Audience autonomy ?Entertainment ?User privacy ?User personalization Audience Fragmentation and Programme Content in International Broadcasting Countries and cultures have long been in communication across borders; however, in the 20th century, first radio, then television and the internet accelerated that process dramatically. National leaders are often unnerved when broadcasts or other information comes straight across borders without any chance to stop, control, or mediate it. In the 1930s and 1940s, around World War II and the cold war, radio seemed menacingly effective in propaganda across borders. Radio competitions and clashes, even some miniature cold wars of their own, erupted among a number of countries in the Asia, Middle East, Latin America, Eastern Europe and the West and USA. By contrast, broadcast television seemed comfortingly short range as it took preeminence from the late 1940s on. Satellite television was the next big technological development in international broadcasting. As early as the 1960s controversies started concerning the use of this type of transmission for fear of the propaganda and intrusion into national borders. The debate culminated in a schism between the developed and the developing regions of the world concerning cultural imperialism, media imperialism and the imbalance in news flow across the globe. The global spread of satellite and cable TV channels in the 1990s has seemed to increase the outflow of American and European television programming and films to other countries. The internet has become the latest major t technology to deliver radio, television, music downloads, video downloads, films, news stories, newspapers, and new forms of content, like weblogs, across national and cultural borders. The growth of the internet in the late 1990s and 2000s has also threatened the ability of national governments to control cross-border flow of information and entertainment. The internet continues to bring a great deal of content from the USA and the West into other parts of the world. However, it also much cheaper to produce either information or entertainment for the internet, so many governments, cultures, religion, and ideologies now produce for and distribute over the internet. Governments dominated activity in international radio, despite early developments and precedents from commercial international shortwave broadcasting prior to World War II. However, it seems private actors instead of governments now dominate global television news and entertainment. What are the implications for the audience of the shift from government international radio broadcasting to private international satellite television? What of the further shift on the internet to supplement or replace the dominance of major international radio and international commercial TV? What of the implications of the fact that most radio audiences today tend to be quite localized, given a choice, particularly with the spread of higher fidelity stereo FM broadcasts, which deliver the best available radio sound quality but seldom cover more than a limited urban area? What are the motivations for broadcasting internationally? Four major reasons have been adduced for both state-run and private organizations transmitting directly across borders: to enhance national or organizational prestige; to promote national or organizational interests; to attempt religious, ideological or political indoctrination; and to foster cultural ties. When governments are the primary actors as it is here, the goal is often summed up as public diplomacy. That is the deliberate effort by governments to affect foreign public opinion in a manner that is positive to their goals. Public diplomacy may be defined as the influencing in a positive way the perceptions of individuals and organizations across the world. Another perspective on this sees motivations in terms of: being an instrument of foreign policy, as a mirror of society, as symbolic presence, as a converter and sustainer, as a coercer and intimidator, as an educator, as an entertainer, and as a seller of goods and services. Evidence of the importance that governments attach to international broadcasting can be found in their total commitment to funding and support using diverse models as may be found in BBC, VOA, Radio Moscow, RFI, etc. Similarly, as the internet now permits a greater variety of players to broadcasting, many more have entered to pursue all or some of similar goals. Why audiences listen or view across borders? According to the categories of listening motivations listed by Boyd (1996) as cited by Straubhaar and Boyd (2003), audiences tune in to hear news and information, to be entertained, to learn, to hear religious or political broadcast, to enhance their status, to protest, or to pursue a hobby. Concerning the question of media effects on audience in international broadcasting, the available studies show that the effects of international radio broadcasting are relatively limited. Nevertheless, there are at least some historical cases in which international radio as part of public diplomacy had considerable impact. Radio Free Europe clearly had a role in fomenting the Hungarian uprising of 1956. The USA conducted ‘radio wars’ against Cuba and Nicaragua fomenting refugee flight if nothing else. The use of radio in international broadcasting is changing decisively; however, as most of the services are moving away from transmitting on shortwave radio and moving towards re-broadcasting or re-transmitting on leased local FM facilities and also supplementing these efforts by web casting. Today, international radio broadcasters tend to put their signals out as streaming audio feeds on the internet. International radio is also sometimes sought by those who do not trust the local or national media readily available to then. This and other factors may be affecting the international audience in the direction of fragmentation. Few international broadcasters today have anything resembling a mass audience, instead they have fragments of core listeners of viewers who are attracted by tradition or habit or interests in specific programming such as news, music, documentaries, sports and so on. Audience Fragmentation in International Broadcasting The rise of new media has brought the question of audience fragmentation and selective exposure to the front burner of concerns by the broadcast media. This is because audience fragmentation has emerged as the inevitable consequence of audience diversity based on diversity of participation and reception that have been enhanced immensely by the convergence of media technologies. Audience fragmentation may also be due to diversity of media content and the loyalty or otherwise of the audience to these various programmes. In the same way there are many broadcast channels and stations even at the external broadcasting level such that loyalties may have become fragmented over the multitude of international stations available to the audience. The array of broadcast options available to the audience may have thus created a remarkable degree of audience fragmentation. There has been created a new multi-platform world due to the convergence of new media. For example, the number of listeners or viewers who now use their PCs or mobile phones for monitoring the newscast instead of waiting for specific time periods of broadcast from their station of choice usually on traditional media may be increasing as more and more people adopt several new media options available to them. Such fragments of listeners or viewers may actually replace their traditional media channels with the ones they now have in multimedia. Some viewers now choose to watch news highlights on the web at their convenience rather than the scheduled news cast they used to frequent. Traditional broadcasters cannot afford to ignore cable and satellite operators as well as the web, mobile and other alternative distribution channels who may have contributed to the fragmentation of their traditional audience. Today media scholars and practitioners have continued to debate whether the mass audience really exists any more or whether mass audience has not become a myth. This issue or question persists because they challenge them to re-think presumed givens of the past while also providing a framework within which to examine the undeniable evidence of fragmentation of the broadcast audience today. As information and communication technologies increasingly become available and affordable to people and are more widely adopted news and current affairs media may have to strategize on ow to move away from being mass media to media targeting and specific niche programming and distribution. The external channel may have to do some audience research to find out what type of audience are disengaging form their traditional media and for what reasons. So also the world-view of such audience may have to be ascertained and embedded in programme content so as to attract the audience. Other forms of distrib ution that may compliment the traditional may have to be considered and appropriated. How to view and review the audience against the backdrop of fragmentation? Any evaluation of audience should start with a disturbing doubt about the continuing validity of the term. On the threshold of an era in which pressing a button summons any song, stock number or movie episode on display anywhere in the house and ‘grazing’ and ‘on demand’ viewing or listening replace the regular traditional listening or viewing habits. The notion of audience as a community or solidarity group, or as a form of involvement in a text which one has not summoned or invented oneself, a text that can surprise, becomes problematic. The danger to audiences posed by their disembodiment into individual dreams bubbles, or their disappearance into time-shift recorders who never find time to listen or view, is not as close as the technologies that allow it. The conditions underlying identity, sociality and community are slower to change than technologies. We know that the world cup or the English league or the Olympic Games find us attending as faithful audience members, be it within the community, the nation or even the globe. These examples however suggest that the term ‘audiences’ is too general. Fans may be more fitting in the case of football, and ‘public’ in the case of an al-Qaida attack. But, whether listening or viewing as we used to know it is seriously threatened, the acutely destabilizing transformations of communication technologies suggest that the concept of ‘audience’ should be studied in tandem with its counterpart: the dominant media and genre it faces. Those changing technologies also suggest that the way in which audiences are situated – is everyone listening or viewing at the same content, are they listening or viewing alone or together, are they talking or silent, is the transmission live or recorded – is inseparable from characteristics of the media they interact with, marked by their technological and institutional characteristics, and the ways in which they perceive their consumers. The larger picture suggests that the contemporary media environment holds two types of threats to audiences. One is the abundance of what is offered, chasing viewers or listeners to an endless choice of niche channels or stations and time-shift options which may operate as a boomerang pushing us to turn on good old broadcast radio or TV and find out what is on. The second threat is the internet. It has been contended that internet user are not really ‘audiences’ as it can not be seen as an electronic mass medium but rather as an umbrella, multi-purpose technology, loaded with a broad range of disparate communication functions, such as shortcutting mediators in the management of daily life. In reality the internet fosters audiences but goes beyond that to provide a myriad of services that may not be in the mode of mass communication especially as it does not fulfill the need of listening or viewing texts over which audiences have no direct control and /or texts that enable the suspending of unbelief. Assuming that in spite of the dramatic transformation in the media environment, audiences are still alive, so do the technologies that nurture them , what follows is a review of the changes undergone by mass media audiences and the ways in which these changes were defined. A very useful scheme to define audiences categorizes them into three: citizens, consumers and jugglers. The audience is categorized thus based on the historical progression of broadcasting through three eras, moving from ‘scarcity’ to ‘availability’ to ‘plenty’. Each phase carries an image of the audience. Scarce broadcasting addresses audiences as a unified mass of ‘citizens’ while available broadcasting addresses them as individual ‘consumers’. Today’s broadcasting of plenty seems to be addressing lonely ‘jugglers’ somewhat paralyzed by endless choice, offering listeners or viewers to either commute between isolated niches or listen or view broadcast as ‘impotent witnesses’. Ellis (2000) as cited by Straubhaar and Boyd (2003), implied that in the first era of scarcity of broadcast, radio and then TV address ‘citizens’ who in the period of availability turn into ‘consumers’ and in the phase of plenty become ‘jugglers’. The ‘citizen’ is a passive audience’ often comprising a lonely crowd subjected to broadcast directed at the mass audience as such broadcast reaches all groups uniformly, but this is soon changed to the ‘consumer’ who is an active audience who has choices and multiple interpretations and plurality of ways of getting involved and varying tastes that can be addressed. The age of plenty provides endless options for activity for the ‘juggler’ audience, but raises the issue of how such activities should be defined. Here, near endless choices weakens commitment and makes the audience to resort to juggling between competing programmes, stations or channels, or media. The monstrous dimensions of choice in this present phase may be leading in two directions. As indicated by Ellis, jugglers can choose between retreating to any obscure, esoteric, isolating niche of broadcasting or joining the citizens and /or consumers by turning to broadcast of traditional radio or TV. What is the implication of audience fragmentation for programme content? Following the identification of today’s audience as a ‘juggler’ audience due to fragmentation the main programme content strategy should border on how to retain the core listeners and viewers and provide niche programmes at the same time. This requires audience research on a more or less continuous basis. International broadcast channels may have to imitate the local FM channels that have mastered the art of creating programme formats that make them unique even where there is a proliferation. The BBC and VOA do a lot of audience research but hardly make them public but they have started utilizing re-distribution and re-transmission on local FM in some regions of world and also making their presence available on the internet and on satellite and cable. What are the prospects of new media? The new media have been widely hailed as a potential way of escape from the oppressive top-down politics of mass democracies in which tightly organized political parties make policy unilaterally and mobilize support behind them with minimal negotiation and grass-roots input. They provide the means for the provision of information and ideas, almost unlimited access for all voices and much feedback and negotiation between sender and receiver in the mass media. They promise new forums for the development of interest groups and formation of opinion, and allow social dialogue without the inevitable intervention of governmental institutions or state machineries. They promise true forms of freedom of expression that may be difficult to control by government. There is the prospect of a reduced role for professional journalist to mediate between citizen and government and to mediate in the public sphere generally. There is also the promise of absence of boundaries, greater speed of transmission and low cost of operations compared to traditional media. The biggest prospect is the ready access for all who want to speak, unmediated by the powerful interests that control the content of print and broadcast. What are the challenges? The new media are no different from the old in terms of social stratification of ownership and access. It is the better-offs that can access and upgrade the new technologies and they are always ahead of the working class or the poor. They are differentially empowered and if anything move further ahead of majority of the people. The new media require new skills and new attitudes to learning and working. There must be the attitude of life-long learning to catch up with new skills demanded by the pace of technological changes. There is also the issue of multi-tasking and its burden or otherwise on the users of new media technologies. Finally, there is overriding challenge of control and diminishing of the freedom of new media. References Anokwa, K. Lin, A. C. , Salwen, B. M. (2003). International Communication: Concepts and Cases. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson. Axford, B. and Huggins, R. (eds). (2001). New Media and Politics. London: Sage. Curran, J. and Gurevitch, M. (2005). Mass Media and Society, 4th ed. London: Hodder Arnold. Jones, S. G. (2003). Encyclopedia of New Media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Kamalipour, R. Y. (2007). Global Communication, 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson. Koelsch, F. (1995). The Infomedia Rev olution: How it is changing our world and your life. Montreal: Mcgraw-Hill Ryerson. Liebes, T. (2005). Viewing and Reviewing the Audience: Fashions in Communication Research, in Curran, J. and Gurevitch, M. (2005). Mass Media and Society, 4th ed. London: Hodder Arnold. Mcquail, D. (2006). Mcquail’s Mass Communication Theory. London: Sage. Slevin, J. (2000). The Internet and Society. Cambridge: Polity. Straubhaar, D. J. and Boyd, D. A. (2003). International Broadcasting, in Anokwa, K. , Lin, A. C. , Salwen, B. M. International Communication: Concepts and Cases. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson.

The New Changes in the Structure and Administration of the Business Research Paper - 68

The New Changes in the Structure and Administration of the Business - Research Paper Example The merging of the three businesses in the UK has strained the managers’ efforts towards establishing an effective workforce body. With the new structure, some of the employees have to be retrenched since tasks have been redistributed. In addition, the number of departments has been reduced significantly. Before the merge, each business had an established structure of various departments and offices. In addition, the three businesses had varied categories of employees in the various established departments. However, after the merger, the operations of the three business were brought together under one management. Some departments were merged, and others eliminated in the new system. Due to the reduced number of departments, a huge number of employees have been retrenched, and others given lower positions than the ones they held in their previous respective business settings. In this regard, it can be observed that the new structure of the human resource has led to the loss of jobs and decline in earnings for some employees. The new structure of the UMGUK requires employees to work together with an aim to boost performance. Adjusting to the new system is a challenging HR issue that the company faces. The employees of UMGUK are not used to the new system and, therefore, the company cannot realize the benefits of the new structure fully in the first phase of implementation. In this regard, the HR department is tasked with the responsibility of ensuring that the employees get acquainted with the new system with the shortest time possible.

Disintermediation and Reintermediation Assignment

Disintermediation and Reintermediation - Assignment Example Reintermediation however defines re-introduction of the intermediaries in the commercial cycle. A business that focuses on optimization and specialization and has resources for utilizing intermediaries may therefore apply reintermediation while a small-scale enterprise that lacks resources and requires closer touch with clients may apply disintermediation in the same market (Oliver, Livermore and Sudweeks 100-102). Last week is the last time that one of us used a travel agent. Such applications are however common with most people preferring online agencies for inquiries, applications, business transactions. Online sites exist in different industries to mediate interactions among the industries’ stakeholders. Examples of the sights are Mmonster.com, Trulia.com, and LegalZoom.com and they offer cost efficiency and convenience to stakeholders. Trulia.com, for example, offer information on real estate, associated environments, and therefore saves real estate agents the cost and time that could be spent to move to different properties. Monster.com and LegalZoom.com also has the cost efficiency and time convenience effects (Cruz-Cunha and Varajao 138). A better understanding of the business environment is one of the potential opportunities that disintermediation offer for my new business. Potential conflict of interest among agents explains this. In order to secure their agency, agents would offer limited and complicated information with the aim of promoting dependence on their services while elimination of such agency will allow for a direct link with consumers to offer unlimited information on the market environment. Profit maximization is another opportunity that disintermediation offers to the business because of limited administration costs. Intermediaries may also mislead a new business to create an entry barrier and disintermediation can manage this (Oliver, Livermore and Sudweeks 100). A business like eBay still

Principles of Semiotics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Principles of Semiotics - Essay Example As language with its signs and symbols is a sign, then to many it is linguistics. So, semiotics is a complex subject studying everything that is expressed under the sky. It is no doubt that Saussure, a famous linguist, is one of the early developers of semiotics. Roland Barthes, Greimas, Julia Kristeva, Jakobson are important in modern semiotics. In its course of development, semiotics had close ties with linguistics, structuralism and social psychology. Structuralism looks at language as a set of signs. They explored the underlying structures beneath the language. Modern Semiotics strives to relate signs and their meaning to their social context and situates itself in the wider perspective offered by social semiotics. It is closely allied to Marxist theory in its social concerns. Semiology aims to take in any system of signs, whatever their substance and limits; images, gestures, musical sounds, objects, and the complex associations of all of these, which form the content of ritual, convention or public entertainment: these constitute, if not languages, at least systems of signification. (Barthes 1967, 9) Acknowledging Barthes idea of signs, semiotics concerns itself with everything that can be considered as a sign, according to Umberto Eco. Sign is anything that signifies something else. ‘Signify’ is very important in Semiotics. As Daniel says, â€Å"n a semiotic sense, signs take the form of words, images, sounds, gestures and objects†. It could be a study of signs in the social, personal or philosophical context. It could be read from Feminist, Marxist or Sociologist perspective. To put in other words, a sign... is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity (Peirce 1931-58, 2.228). Print and other media advertisements can be read closely to reveal themes and trends in the permutations and combinations of signs. It also gives clue of the readers and the advertisers. The

Homeless English Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Homeless English - Essay Example However, many individual, structural, family and social factors are also contributing to this problem. For example, divorce rate is increasing day by day in America and subsequently single parenthood is also rising. Single parenthood prevent families from achieving enough income for managing family expense and the ultimate outcome could be poverty and homelessness. Many people are of the view that governmental intervention and assistances are necessary to assist people do build have their own homes. â€Å"Around $2.5 billion of dollars has already been sanctioned by the Obama administration for solving homelessness problems in America† (Obama Administration awards $1.4 billion in homeless grants). However, many others are of the view that such assistance is not necessary to this problem. In their opinion, such huge assistance will make the people lazy or idle and they will approach the government for everything without doing their duties properly. This paper analyses the argum ents in favor and against governmental assistance to homelessness problems. contribute to the homelessness problem. Children seem to be most important community upon which homelessness problem affect seriously. Government, social organizations and individuals should combine well and act effectively to eradicate homelessness related problem from the world. Homeless children are sick at twice the rate of other children. They suffer twice as many ear infections, have four times the rate of asthma, and have five times more diarrhea and stomach problems. Homeless children go hungry twice as often as nonhomeless children. More than one-fifth of homeless preschoolers have emotional problems serious enough to require professional care, but less than one-third receive any treatment. Homeless children are twice as likely to repeat a grade compared to nonhomeless children. Homeless children have twice the rate of learning disabilities and three times the rate of emotional and behavioral proble ms of nonhomeless children. Half of school-age homeless children experience anxiety, depression, or withdrawal compared to 18 percent of nonhomeless children (Bassuk &Friedman, 2005, p.2). The above statistics clearly show that homelessness may cause extreme damages to the children and it should be reduced or avoided completely for the better development of the children. Children are the future asset of a nation and no country can keep a blind eye towards the healthy development of the children. Homelessness in fact affect children more than any other community. Not only for physical growth, but also for the emotional or mental growth. Children need their own homes. Homelessness will create an unsecure feeling in the minds of the children which is not good for their healthy development. Community based shelter homes are provided to many of the homeless people in America. Such strategies may cause more damage than good to the safe development of children. So, governmental assistance is necessary to avoid homelessness in America. The recent recession, has affected the poor people more than the rich people. Poor people usually stay in rented homes since they are don’t have enough resources to purchase a property and build their own homes. Financial institutions already started the tightening of screws while allocating mortgages or home loans as a result of the lessons they learned from the recent recession. So, poor people are facing extreme difficulties in finding enough financial assistance for making their

Critically Examine How Assessment and Learning Is Facilitated in Your Essay

Critically Examine How Assessment and Learning Is Facilitated in Your Work Community Setting - Essay Example This paper attempts to explore the role of mentorship in a clinical setting wherein learning and assessment is facilitated through a deeper understanding of the learning environment, the needs of the environment and the learner’s and the mentor’s qualifications, requirements in terms of planning the learning, tools and techniques, assessments, relationship between the mentor and mentee, lifecycle of the relationship and the challenges in the learning and development process for both the learner or mentee and the mentor. Definitions of what mentoring is all about, the learning setting, process, facilitation, assessment, outcomes, roles, etc. will help in understanding the above. What is mentoring? McKimm et al (2007) observe that defining the term ‘mentoring’ is a difficult task as it is a complex process and depends mostly on the learning environment and the interpretation of the environment’s needs by the various different individuals or groups. Quo ting Megginson and Clutterbuck (1995, p13) they note that â€Å"mentoring is ‘off line help by one person to another in making significant transitions in knowledge, work or thinking’† and that the role of a mentor is to help and guide the learner through a transition phase of the learner in a particular aspect like learning and other professional or personal circumstances. Also, mentoring is just one form of support (p1). â€Å"Mentoring is a transformational process that seeks to help individuals develop and use knowledge to improve themselves on an ongoing basis. It is a professional dialogue that encourages reflection and development, signposting mentees to other sources of help as required† (What is mentoring, 2012). General medical practice describes it as â€Å"‘a way of helping another understand more fully, and learn comprehensively from, their day to day experience† and a commissioned department of health describes it as a â€Å"proc ess whereby an experienced, highly regarded, empathic person (the mentor), guides another individual (the mentee) in the development and re-examination of their own ideas, learning, and personal and professional development† (What is mentoring, 2012). Palermo and McCall (2008, p801) note that mentoring is a form of providing experiential learning where the learning is actual and practical, and it is seen that the learning will be ineffective and unsafe if there is no mentoring offered during the course of the experiential learning. Mentoring and teaching There is a need to understand the difference between teaching and mentoring as it is essential to get the desired outcomes. McKimm and Jollie (2007) have differentiated between teaching and mentoring: while teaching is said to be a ‘teacher centred’ approach, mentoring is understood to be a ‘student centred’ approach where the learning needs of the learner are taken into consideration along with regul ar assessments of the same. Teaching itself is continually evolving to reflect on experience and critically explore the potential transformation of the learner. The basis for this evolution is the action research teaching need that recognizes that experiential learning leads to both the mentor and mentee contributing to the sustainability of the learning in the particular setting. To achieve sustainability through developing significant insights into the learning environment,

Electronic communication and its impacts on the organizatio Research Paper

Electronic communication and its impacts on the organizatio - Research Paper Example Nevertheless, the paper will discuss issues related to electronic communication, by defining it, comparing it to traditional forms of communication, discussing its impact on the workplace, and its impact on the customer and organization relationship. The definition of the electronic communication excludes the wire and oral communication as it is defined in the Tile III, from communication tracking devices, paging devices, and electronic funds transfer information, which is stored by financial institutions in their communications system. Therefore, electronic communication is defined in different ways depending on the ways of information dissemination, the purpose of the information conveyed, and the information involved. In this case, the paper has provided an extensive definition of electronic communication, which has been derived from the State Acts concerning communication. Differences between Electronic Communication and the Traditional Communication One of the traditional forms of communication is face to face, and it is a most preferred form of commutation. The main difference between the electronic communication and this form of traditional communication relates to maintenance of personal connection. In this case, face-to-face communication facilitates maintenance of personal connection for the parties involved compared to communication via text messaging and emails. For example, people prefer holding a face-to-face meeting with the other members of the board instead of making a conference call for discussing same issues (Walther, Loh, and Granka 36). In fact, electronic communication denies the parties a chance to see each other’s facial impressions, which are highly pertinent aspects in the process of communication. The other difference between traditional communication and electronic communication relates to the way of interaction since each form determines whether the meeting will take place in a single location or through live interaction ove r the Internet by use of technology. Electronic communication involves technology that allow people to connect from multiple locations, thus creating the ability of getting together with colleagues, managers, and customers through a team building that facilitates achievement of organizational objectives. On the other hand, in traditional communication, a meeting can only be held in a certain location and the parties involved must be in the same location at a period for the meeting to take place. In addition, traditional communication involving the use of telephone allows verbal connection, providing non-verbal cues, which are based on the tone of the voice, pauses and variations. In electronic communication, there are tools such as Skype, which offer online phone connection that includes images and video, unlike the traditional communication. Impacts of E-Communication on the Work Place Communication Electronic communication has made a significant contribution to workplace collabora tion, expansion of globalization and distribution of work team members during the twentieth century. This is essential for sharing of information and communication related to various projects through the Internet, email, social media and virtual team rooms, which are applied as the tools of electronic workplace collabo

Carl Jung Theory Essay Example for Free

Carl Jung Theory Essay Jungs theory divides the psyche into three parts. The first is the ego, which Jung identifies with the conscious mind. Closely related is the personal unconscious, which includes anything that is not presently conscious, but can be. The personal unconscious is like most peoples understanding of the unconscious in that it includes both memories that are easily brought to mind and those that have been suppressed for some reason. But it does not include the instincts that Freud would have it include. But then Jung adds the part of the psyche that makes his theory stand out from all others: the collective unconscious. You could call it your psychic inheritance. It is the reservoir of our experiences as a species, a kind of knowledge we are all born with. And yet we can never be directly conscious of it. It influences all of our experiences and behaviors, most especially the emotional ones, but we only know about it indirectly, by looking at those influences. There are some experiences that show the effects of the collective unconscious more clearly than others: The experiences of love at first sight, of deja vu (the feeling that youve been here before), and the immediate recognition of certain symbols and the meanings of certain myths, could all be understood as the sudden conjunction of our outer reality and the inner reality of the collective unconscious. Grander examples are the creative experiences shared by artists and musicians all over the world and in all times, or the spiritual experiences of mystics of all religions, or the parallels in dreams, fantasies, mythologies, fairy tales, and literature. A nice example that has been greatly discussed recently is the near-death experience. It seems that many people, of many different cultural backgrounds, find that they have very similar recollections when they are brought back from a close encounter with death. They speak of leaving their bodies, seeing their bodies and the events surrounding them clearly, of being pulled through a long tunnel towards a bright light, of seeing deceased relatives or religious figures waiting for them, and of their disappointment at having to leave this happy scene to return to their bodies. Perhaps we are all built to experience death in this fashion. Archetypes The contents of the collective unconscious are called archetypes. Jung also called them dominants, imagos, mythological or primordial images, and a few other names, but archetypes seem to have won out over these. An archetype is an unlearned tendency to experience things in a certain way. The archetype has no form of its own, but it acts as an organizing principle on the things we see or do. It works the way that instincts work in Freuds theory: At first, the baby just wants something to eat, without knowing what it wants. It has a rather indefinite yearning, which, nevertheless, can be satisfied by some things and not by others. Later, with experience, the child begins to yearn for something more specific when it is hungry a bottle, a cookie, a broiled lobster, a slice of New York style pizza. The archetype is like a black hole in space: You only know its there by how it draws matter and light to itself. The mother archetype The mother archetype is a particularly good example. All of our ancestors had mothers. We have evolved in an environment that included a mother or mother-substitute. We would never have survived without our connection with a nurturing-one during our times as helpless infants. It stands to reason that we are built in a way that reflects that evolutionary environment: We come into this world ready to want mother, to seek her, to recognize her, to deal with her. So the mother archetype is our built-in ability to recognize a certain relationship, that of mothering. Jung says that this is rather abstract, and we are likely to project the archetype out into the world and onto a particular person, usually our own mothers. Even when an archetype doesnt have a particular real person available, we tend to personify the archetype, that is, turn it into a mythological story-book character. This character symbolizes the archetype. The mother archetype is symbolized by the primordial mother or earth mother of mythology, by Eve and Mary in western traditions, and by less personal symbols such as the church, the nation, a forest, or the ocean. According to Jung, someone whose own mother failed to satisfy the demands of the archetype may well be one that spends his or her life seeking comfort in the church, or in identification with the motherland, or in meditating upon the figure of Mary, or in a life at sea. Mana You must understand that these archetypes are not really biological things, like Freuds instincts. They are more spiritual demands. For example, if you dreamt about long things, Freud might suggest these things represent the phallus and ultimately sex. But Jung might have a very different interpretation. Even dreaming quite specifically about a penis might not have much to do with some unfulfilled need for sex. It is curious that in primitive societies, phallic symbols do not usually refer to sex at all. They usually symbolize mana, or spiritual power. These symbols would be displayed on occasions when the spirits are being called upon to increase the yield of corn, or fish, or to heal someone. The connection between the penis and strength, between semen and seed, between fertilization and fertility are understood by most cultures. The shadow Sex and the life instincts in general are, of course, represented somewhere in Jungs system. They are a part of an archetype called the shadow. It derives from our prehuman, animal past, when our concerns were limited to survival and reproduction, and when we werent self-conscious. It is the dark side of the ego, and the evil that we are capable of is often stored there. Actually, the shadow is amoral neither good nor bad, just like animals. An animal is capable of tender care for its young and vicious killing for food, but it doesnt choose to do either. It just does what it does. It is innocent. But from our human perspective, the animal world looks rather brutal, inhuman, so the shadow becomes something of a garbage can for the parts of ourselves that we cant quite admit to. Symbols of the shadow include the snake (as in the garden of Eden), the dragon, monsters, and demons. It often guards the entrance to a cave or a pool of water, which is the collective unconscious. Next time you dream about wrestling with the devil, it may only be yourself you are wrestling with! The persona The persona represents your public image. The word is, obviously, related to the word person and personality, and comes from a Latin word for mask. So the persona is the mask you put on before you show yourself to the outside world. Although it begins as an archetype, by the time we are finished realizing it, it is the part of us most distant from the collective unconscious. At its best, it is just the good impression we all wish to present as we fill the roles society requires of us. But, of course, it can also be the false impression we use to manipulate peoples opinions and behaviors. And, at its worst, it can be mistaken, even by ourselves, for our true nature: Sometimes we believe we really are what we pretend to be! Anima and animus A part of our persona is the role of male or female we must play. For most people that role is determined by their physical gender. But Jung, like Freud and Adler and others, felt that we are all really bisexual in nature. When we begin our lives as fetuses, we have undifferentiated sex organs that only gradually, under the influence of hormones, become male or female. Likewise, when we begin our social lives as infants, we are neither male nor female in the social sense. Almost immediately as soon as those pink or blue booties go on we come under the influence of society, which gradually molds us into men and women. In all societies, the expectations placed on men and women differ, usually based on our different roles in reproduction, but often involving many details that are purely traditional. In our society today, we still have many remnants of these traditional expectations. Women are still expected to be more nurturant and less aggressive; men are still expected to be strong and to ignore the emotional side of life. But Jung felt these expectations meant that we had developed only half of our potential. The anima is the female aspect present in the collective unconscious of men, and the animus is the male aspect present in the collective unconscious of women. Together, they are referred to as syzygy. The anima may be personified as a young girl, very spontaneous and intuitive, or as a witch, or as the earth mother. It is likely to be associated with deep emotionality and the force of life itself. The animus may be personified as a wise old man, a sorcerer, or often a number of males, and tends to be logical, often rationalistic, and even argumentative. The anima or animus is the archetype through which you communicate with the collective unconscious generally, and it is important to get into touch with it. It is also the archetype that is responsible for much of our love life: We are, as an ancient Greek myth suggests, always looking for our other  half, the half that the Gods took from us, in members of the opposite sex. When we fall in love at first sight, then we have found someone that fills our anima or animus archetype particularly well! Other archetypes Jung said that there is no fixed number of archetypes that we could simply list and memorize. They overlap and easily melt into each other as needed, and their logic is not the usual kind. But here are some he mentions: Besides mother, their are other family archetypes. Obviously, there is father, who is often symbolized by a guide or an authority figure. There is also the archetype family, which represents the idea of blood relationship and ties that run deeper than those based on conscious reasons. There is also the child, represented in mythology and art by children, infants most especially, as well as other small creatures. The Christ child celebrated at Christmas is a manifestation of the child archetype, and represents the future, becoming, rebirth, and salvation. Curiously, Christmas falls during the winter solstice, which in northern primitive cultures also represents the future and rebirth. People used to light bonfires and perform ceremonies to encourage the suns return to them. The child archetype often blends with other archetypes to form the child-god, or the child-hero. Many archetypes are story characters. The hero is one of the main ones. He is the mana personality and the defeater of evil dragons. Basically, he represents the ego we do tend to identify with the hero of the story and is often engaged in fighting the shadow, in the form of dragons and other monsters. The hero is, however, often dumb as a post. He is, after all, ignorant of the ways of the collective unconscious. Luke Skywalker, in the Star Wars films, is the perfect example of a hero. The hero is often out to rescue the maiden. She represents purity, innocence, and, in all likelihood, naivete. In the beginning of the Star Wars story, Princess Leia is the maiden. But, as the story progresses, she becomes the anima, discovering the powers of the force the collective unconscious and becoming an equal partner with Luke, who turns out to be her brother. The wise old man guides the hero. He is a form of the animus, and reveals to the hero the nature of the collective unconscious. In Star Wars, he is played by Obi Wan Kenobi and, later, Yoda. Notice that they teach Luke about the force and, as Luke matures, they die and become a part of him. You might be curious as to the archetype represented by Darth Vader, the dark father. He is the shadow and the master of the dark side of the force. He also turns out to be Luke and Leias father. When he dies, he becomes one of the wise old men. There is also an animal archetype, representing humanitys relationships with the animal world. The heros faithful horse would be an example. Snakes are often symbolic of the animal archetype, and are thought to be particularly wise. Animals, after all, are more in touch with their natures than we are. Perhaps loyal little robots and reliable old spaceships the Falcon are also symbols of animal. And there is the trickster, often represented by a clown or a magician. The tricksters role is to hamper the heros progress and to generally make trouble. In Norse mythology, many of the gods adventures originate in some trick or another played on their majesties by the half-god Loki. There are other archetypes that are a little more difficult to talk about. One is the original man, represented in western religion by Adam. Another is the God archetype, representing our need to comprehend the universe, to give a meaning to all that happens, to see it all as having some purpose and direction. The hermaphrodite, both male and female, represents the union of opposites, an important idea in Jungs theory. In some religious art, Jesus is presented as a rather feminine man. Likewise, in China, the character Kuan Yin began as a male saint (the bodhisattva Avalokiteshwara), but was portrayed in such a feminine manner that he is more often thought of as the female goddess of compassion! The most important archetype of all is the self. The self is the ultimate unity of the personality and is symbolized by the circle, the cross, and the mandala figures that Jung was fond of painting. A mandala is a drawing that is used in meditation because it tends to draw your focus back to the center, and it can be as simple as a geometric figure or as complicated as a stained glass window. The personifications that best represent self are Christ and Buddha, two people who many believe achieved perfection. But Jung felt that perfection of the personality is only truly achieved in death.

The Concept Of The Imperial Presidency

The Concept Of The Imperial Presidency It was historian Arthur M. Schlesinger who popularised the term imperial presidency to describe the evolution of the modern day president. Schlesinger contended that expansion and abuses of the presidential office were so profound by 1972, they had thwarted the traditional checks and balances of the constitutional system. He concluded the imperial presidency emerged due to the aggregation of presidential war powers that were primarily acquired in response to Americas participation in twentieth century wars. Schlesinger connected the presidencys usurpation of foreign policy to the accumulation of domestic powers, stressing that the war powers and executive secrecy were two significant devices which gave rise to the misuse of power by presidents.  [4]  He also reflected a growing belief that the evolution of the presidency had permanently transformed the balance of power; resulting in an extremely powerful president and a resident Congress in the decision-making arena.  [5]   Until recently, many commentators widely regarded that the Nixon administration represented the true singular embodiment of the imperial presidency.  [6]  More than three decades later, the notions of the imperial presidency has once again resurfaced. Many scholars, including Schlesinger himself, observe that the imperial presidency has been revived under the Bush administration,  [7]  and given further vigour under the leadership of President Obama.  [8]  But how authentic is this approach in understanding presidential power in decision-making today? How much utility is there in Schlesingers concept of an imperial presidency? Is it the case as Schlesinger suggests, the modern day president is out of control, operating beyond the constitutional parameters and in clear defiance of the doctrine of separation of powers. THE IMPERIAL PRESIDENCY REBORN The starting point of this paper is recognition of Schlesingers imperial presidency, and that it was restored to former prominence under the presidency of George W. Bush. However, this paper makes a distinction between the usurpation of power and the abuse of power.  [9]  Unlike presidents who temporarily assumed power in times of war, we argue like Nixon, Bush abused power by claiming a near absolution of power to be the enduring prerogative of the presidency.  [10]  Presidents such as Lincoln, FDR, and Truman, it is argued, momentarily usurped power anticipating Congress would hold them to account after the wartime emergency ended.  [11]  It is in this distinction that we argue makes the presidency of George W. Bush an imperial presidency. By actively trying to keep a monopoly of constitutional power, it continuously relied on powers beyond those vested in the executive by the Constitution, and often unilaterally of Congress. THE NEW IMPERIAL PRESIDENCY The imperial presidency of George W. Bush was constructed and enforced by Vice-President Cheney and his chief legal advisor Addington, given legal veneer by Deputy Assistant Attorney General Yoo, endorsed by White House Counsel and later Attorney General Gonzales.  [12]   This paper also makes a distinction between the imperial presidency under Nixon and the imperial presidency under Bush. A drawback of Schlesingers approach is that his theory emphasises the abuse of power by the individual in the office, the president. Qualifying his theory, we argue that it was not an imperial presidency but an imperial vice-presidency. There is insurmountable amount of evidence suggesting Vice-President Dick Cheney was the chief architect  [13]  behind the concept of broad-based, unreviewable, and secret presidential powers  [14]  that gave further projection to the unitary executive legal theories.  [15]  These legal theories, advocated by Cheney,  [16]  were depended upon frequently and in various contexts by the Bush administration to justify their assault on individual liberties and other intrusions of the American constitution.  [17]   However, it is clear from the opening sentence of Article II, the Constitution vests the entire executive power in the president and not the vice-president;  [18]  a point illustrated by President Trumans Oval Office desk plate, which read, the buck stops here.  [19]  Reflecting this point, Clinton Rossiter described the presidency as a one man jobwhocan never escape making the final decisions in which the public and Constitution hold him responsible.  [20]  To make sense of Bushs presidency, this paper argues that the Bush administration was a victim of what Janis termed Groupthink.  [21]  Applying Janiss hypothesis, an example of the influence of groupthink can be found in the Bush administrations decision to pursue an invasion of Iraq.  [22]  According to former Pentagon analyst Karen Kwiatwoski, there was a groupthink style of environment throughout the executive hierarchy, which blindly sought for the agreement to invade Bagdad.  [23]  Theses neoconservat ive executives formed a royal court around Bush, and by controlling the type and supply of information they were able to shape and influence his knowledge, to such an extent, it could be argued they were making presidential decisions on behalf of the president. Bush was simply a string-puppet, who was directed ironically by the men whom he led. For example, in a press conference in 2002, President Bush was asked what he was doing to capture Osama Bin Laden, an individual in his conviction to be the Americas most notorious enemy. Bush responded, You know, I just dont spend much time on him.  [24]  This perhaps explains why President Bush and Congress rushed into war before a broad-based coalition of allies could be formed. In this sense, Congress and the American public also became victims of groupthink, as they too were persuaded by highly misleading information. Therefore, it was not just an imperial vice-presidency but an imperial executive presidency, where power was being ab used by a number of executive individuals.  [25]   REINING IN THE EXECUTIVE Schlesingers approach in understanding the charges of a too powerful president is useful. Although, its utility of the great man perspective is restrictive and misleading at the same time when trying to understand the true nature and power of the presidency in the decision-making process. Despite operating under similar conditions, it is arguable that the current Obama administration no longer enjoys the vast amount of executive power, which was expanded and abused under the Bush administration. A similar argument can be drawn when analyzing Bushs two-term presidency. As the presidency entered into its final bout, with the political, media and public attention transferring to the presidential candidates, the Bush presidency became somewhat lame duck,  [26]  whose authority and influence had been curtailed extensively. Therefore, a distinction can be made between Bushs first and second term. It is evident that in his first term, the Bush administration acquired a vast amount of executive authority, which allowed them to dictate American foreign policy. However, this is not a new phenomenon. Wildavskys Two Presidency theory suggests that the president wears two hats, enjoying more freedom in foreign affairs.  [27]  Qualifying his theory, we argue that the Bush administrations ability to act unilaterally in this domain had a spill-over effect, which soon began to pervade and embolden the domestic presidency as well. This gave rise to Schlesingers revolutionary presidenc y;  [28]  the Bush administration was able to change the dynamics of American democracy by creating a plebiscitary presidency  [29]  where they were only accountable during elections (ironically strengthening his presidency as he was re-elected). Moreover, by overriding the constitutional provisions of checks and balances the Bush administration became the dominate branch in the decision-making process of the American political system. However, it is arguable that towards the end of his second term the Bush administration was far more restricted and constrained, especially in relation to its domestic policy ambitions with a more assertive Congress playing a more dominant role in the decision-making process.  [30]  Even though the presidency continuously and arrogantly acted unilaterally from Congress, its scope to do so especially in the domestic arena had been heavily curtailed. We contend that the expansion of the presidency to a certain degree has been reined-in, going some way to restoring the balance of power between the president and Congress. ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES AND THE CONCEPT OF PRESIDENTIAL POWER The utility of the historical and legal approach helps us make sense of the current change in dynamics of the presidency and sheds light on how the Bush administration was able to act unilaterally in the decision-making process. This approach suggests that the aggregation of presidential power has not occurred continuously, and neither is the modern day presidency a source of permanent power that has nullified the Constitution as suggested by Schlesinger. This is because presidential power is not an attribute but a relation. The constitutional and historical legitimacy of the presidency may put any president in a privileged position in the decision-making process, but the magnitude of his power is variable as much of it exists in relation to his influence over other individuals and institutions. Therefore, we contend that presidential power at the federal level ebbs and flows: varying from one domain of political activity to another; from one circumstance to another; from one preside ncy to another; evolving gradually at times and fluctuating abruptly at other times. A prominent reason for this is because of the deliberate efforts by the Founding Fathers to stagger the constitutional powers, installed conflict into the heart of the American polity.  [31]  The vague wording of the Constitution instigates a natural invitation for struggle between the executive and legislature,  [32]  in which both institutions push the boundaries to maximize their political power. Consequently, a tug of war for influence develops between the presidency and Congress for control of the political agenda, which is more prevalent when Congress is divided, or in times of uncertainty. The historical approach does seem to suggest that a pattern exists: repeated assumptions of power in the decision-making process are followed each time by a chorus of criticism, which in return is followed by stricter congressional oversight towards presidency.  [33]  Similarly, scholarly judgments tend to reflect this cycle, although it is arguable, that these observations are somewhat exaggerated and do only reflect that period of time. For example the notions of an imperial presidency were embedded due to the fierce opposition of the Nixon presidency. Likewise, the reflections of an imperiled presidency post-Watergate were an overstated reaction to the perceived limited presidential activity in the decision-making process by Carter and Ford.  [34]  However, it is plausible based on the history of the American polity that the option is either executive supremacy or congressional supremacy. On the other hand, the concept of power suggests this does not necessarily mean that it has to be one or the other. As aforementioned above, power only exists in relation to influence, but influence is not a game of fixed sums, where one gains the other looses in the decision-making process. Similarly, the influence of both institutions is in a constant flux, forever changing in different circumstances. Therefore, it is pointless to make judgments which institution has more power at any given moment as evidence is murky. AGENDA-STRUCTURING POWERS According to C. Wright Mills, a president has more scope of influence in relation to Congress in resolving issues then introducing new issues on the political agenda. Other commentators like James Bryce make a similar distinction by arguing: In quiet times the power of the president is not great; yet in troublesome times it is otherwise, for immense responsibility is thrown on one who is both commander-in-chief and head of the civil executive.  [35]   An explanation for these phenomena can be found in the executives function to respond to unforeseen circumstances more responsively than the deliberative decision-making body of Congress. Thomas E. Cornin contends, when such events occur, the presidency is in the driving seat, especially in relation to foreign affairs. The presidency enjoys the prerogative in determining what constitutes a crisis,  [36]  and can exploit its privileged position to structure new developments to their accord. This is not to say Congress lacks the constitutional authority to intervene, rather, it often lacks the will or courage to do so.  [37]  This is because whenever a president waves the crisis flag or takes a foreign-policy initiative, in most circumstances, he is likely to have the country behind him, including influential business leaders, the media and the majority of the public.  [38]   This explains how the Bush administration was able to implement their visions of an imperial presidency. The unprecedented events of 9/11 infused Wildavskys two presidencies into one, presenting the Bush administration a blank canvas whereby they were able to structure the emergency response. More importantly, 9/11 strategically placed them at the forefront of the decision-making process in both domains. However, it is plausible the reason why Congress rubber stamped Bushs 9/11 policies, is because at the time Congress too favored a strong political response and held the commander-in-chief responsible to deliver such a response. In this sense, according to sociological approach of Mills,  [39]  the Bush administration was not exerting presidential power, but was simply reflecting the will of Congress and the American public. Bush was merely a surf-rider on the waves of international developments. Like Kennedy in the Cuban missile crisis,  [40]  the Bush administration knew it was important to act on their wishes and was conscious that an unpopular response to 9/11 would result in a backlash politically. Therefore, this approach suggests, due to the natures of emergencies, no matter who happens to be president, every incumbent is compelled to follow a course of action that most Americans and congressmen approve, purely for political opportunism and political survival. In this sense, the presidency shapes the president. On the other hand, the utility of Barbers psychological approach suggests presidents also shape presidencies.  [41]  Although presidential decisions are determined by political and other constraints largely beyond their control, the personality of the incumbent is significant in helping shape presidential decisions. Presidential decisions may be influenced by the climate of expectation and power situation,  [42]  but because they enjoy the best bully pulpit, presidents actively try to influence the public and educate them through various means into going along with what they want.  [43]  In the case of the Bush Presidency, the administration successfully manipulated both the public and Congress about the severity of threat Iraq imposed. A fundamental reason why Congress was easily tricked into war was because Congress relied heavily upon the information provided by the White House to inform them about the debate. In the domestic domain, Congress is more of an expert and c an rely upon various avenues of information to gain a better understanding. However, in foreign affairs information is more restricted and it is usually the case Congress goes along with the expertise of the executive. As the American media often failed to report accurately on the Middle East wars, focusing on rallying behind the troops, the Bush administration was in the privileged position of educating the public and Congress about Americas successful campaign against the war on terrorism. As there was no official oppositional leader to challenge Bush, his presidency was able to shape American foreign policy unilaterally, thus allowing President Bush to become an imperial president whose actions were undisputed by Congress. It was only until casualties started mounting up, that the public support started wavering. In the absence of public consensus, Congress became more assertive in relation to Bushs policies, as it became concerned about its lack of involvement in the strategy of the wars that was draining America out of its men and resources. However, by then it was all too late. For the sake of national prestige Congress was committed (as usual) to keep funding the wars which had allowed the presidency to run riot. The irony here is, although, the wars liberated the presidency from the constraints of the domestic environment, it projected the presidency into a more complex and volatile environment with multiply constraints. Once Bush committed the troops, he found it extremely difficult to pull the troops out. This meant they became part of the environmental parameters within which the Obama administration had to operate in. Again, the irony here is, rather than embolden the domestic presidency it has reversed the process and added more constraints on the Obama presidency. CONCLUSION Does the United States still have an imperial presidency? The difficulty in the answer lies with the concept. The imperial presidency still means many things to many people. The answer is further complicated as it is hard to distinguish between a strong presidency and imperial presidency. Schlesingers concept implies that the imperial presidency exists because of the presidents prerogative in foreign policy which he abuses to extend his other powers. The problem here is, because the Supreme Court rarely passes judgments in relation to presidential abuses in this domain,  [44]  we are left with political judgments from politicians and scholars that are conflicting, as there is more than one criteria to judge presidential power. It is like Michael Novak observed, the right worries about the imperial president at home; the left about the imperial president abroad.  [45]  This is evident for the Obama presidency. As he has implemented an extraordinary amount of legislation and co ntinued executive secrecy, some commentators contend that he has extended Bushs legacy.  [46]  They see his ambitious economic and social policies as unconstitutional. As aforementioned above, the modern day president is compelled for the sake of American prosperity to pursue certain kinds of economic and social policies. Just because the Obama presidency has been successful, it does not mean other actors have not have not influenced the final decision. In most of the legislation passed, Obama has had to compromise, even his national health care programme. We conclude that the seeds of an imperial presidency have always existed. However, for it to flourish there has to be a combination of men and events.  [47]  If the individual in the office does not have a sense for power and relies on the formal powers of the office then it is likely the system of checks and balances will hold firm. Similarly, extraordinary events can curtail presidential power. America recently had the diplomatic version of 9/11 with confidential cables being exposed, withdrawing even more influence from the president in decision-making power.  [48]  

Bilingualism and the effects of third language acquisition

Bilingualism and the effects of third language acquisition Since the early 1920s, much research has been done on bilingualism, with the earliest investigations finding mainly negative cognitive effects attributed to bilingualism (Pintner Keller, 1922; Saer, 1923). However, ever since Peal Lambert (1962) counter-claimed that bilinguals actually do perform better in certain cognitive tasks (e.g. symbolic manipulation types of non-verbal tasks), more recent studies have solidified the current view that bilingualism enhances ones cognitive flexibility and metalinguistic awareness. Yet, most research on language acquisition only focuses on one target language and neglects other languages already acquired or are being acquired by the learner. Research on third language acquisition (TLA) or the acquisition of additional languages (AAL), which attempts to fill this gap by bringing together the two traditionally detached fields of bilingualism and language acquisition, has only begun to accelerate during the late 1990s (Cenoz, 2008; Falk Bardel 20 10). The effect of bilingualism on TLA is one of the main areas of interest in research concerning third language (L3) studies. In order to sufficiently answer this question, we would have to define what we mean by bilingualism and third language acquisition. Different linguists define bilingualism differently over a broad spectrum, from the maximalist view of equal native-like competency in two languages to the minimalist interpretation of a minimal competency in two languages. For the purpose of this paper, we will define bilingualism as the ability to communicate effectively in two languages. Similarly, henceforth, third language acquisition will be defined as the process of learning and acquiring of a non-native language in a secondary context (i.e. language is acquired in a structured setting) by a learner who have already acquired two other languages previously. General consensus today prescribes to the notion that bilingualism brings about various cognitive benefits. It can be postulated that third language learners have a distinct advantage over second language learners due to their enhanced cognitive capabilities brought about by their bilingualism. Hakuta Bialystok (1994) wrote that the knowledge of two languages is greater than the sum of its parts. Most studies tend to indicate advantages in bilinguals over monolinguals in language acquisition, especially when the learners bilingualism is additive rather than subtractive (Cenoz, 2003). While there are numerous other factors affecting TLA including language similarity, L1/L2 influences, L1/L2 proficiency, recency of use, language status, role of Universal Grammar, cross-linguistic influences, early multilingualism and age of TLA (De Angelis 2007; Cenoz, 2008), we will be focusing solely on the effects of bilingualism on TLA. In particular, we will be discussing the effects of meta-ling uistic and meta-procedural gains on TLA due to bilingualism. Bilinguals have shown to display cognitive flexibility and enhanced metalinguistic awareness over monolinguals, and this in turn enhances bilinguals TLA (McLaughlin Nayak, 1989; Cenoz, 2003). Studies of bilingual children have shown bilinguals to have higher scores in tests targeting creative or divergent thinking. Research has also shown bilinguals to possess better abilities to control and utilise linguistic knowledge and to have an overall predisposition in word awareness tasks (Cummins, 1991; Bialystok, 2001). Furthermore, in Cummins (1991), the interdependence hypothesis was proposed which suggested that skill transfers take place from a bilinguals L1 into L2. One can only assume that these enhanced cognitive and metalinguistic abilities would have a positive effect in a bilinguals acquisition of a L3. It can also be logically deduced that the skill transfers from L1 into L2 based on the interdependence hypothesis can also occur from a L3 learners L1 and L2 into the L3. In an e ffort to further this hypothesis, De Angelis (2007) wrote that TLA differ significantly from second language acquisition (SLA) due to the fact that L3 learners can transfer linguistic elements from their prior knowledge in both L1 and L2, and this gives L3 learners an advantage over L2 learners. Studies have also shown that L3 learners often leverage upon their access to two different linguistic systems during the process of TLA (Herdina Jessner, 2002). All these suggested that the enhanced cognitive and metalinguistic abilities a bilingual possesses positively affects the acquisition of a L3. Enhanced cognitive abilities are not the only skills transferable during TLA. Syntactic transfers have also been shown to occur in L3 leaners. Different languages have different syntactic rules, and most bilinguals would have had access to the different syntactic rules governing the different languages they know (assuming that the two languages are syntactically dissimilar). This knowledge of two different sets of syntactic rules would assist a bilingual in the learning of a L3. Flynn, Foley Vinnitskaya (2004) proposed that language learning is cumulative in the Cumulative-Enhancement Model, suggesting that each language learned previously influences and enhances subsequent language learning, adding to a cumulative advantage for third and additional language learners. However, a more recent study by Bardel Falk (2007) on Swedish and Dutch L3 learners found only positive transfers of syntactic properties from L2 but not L1 in the learning of a L3. It was additionally proposed that i n L3 acquisition, the L2 acts like a filter, making the L1 inaccessible. If the above researches holds true, bilingualism could have either a positive or negative effect on third language acquisition depending on the learners L2. If the L2 is syntactically similar to the L3, the L3 learner would experience positive transfers of the syntactic properties of L2 into L3, aiding the learners acquisition of L3. Conversely, if the L1 but not the L2 is syntactically similar to the L3, the L3 learner would not be able to access the benefits of his knowledge in his L1 that he would otherwise have been able to reap had there not existed an L2 to act as a filter. Nevertheless, both studies while disagreeing on the existence of syntactic transfer from a L3 learners L1, agreed that they both found no negative (only positive or neutral) transfers regardless of the similarity or dissimilarity of the L3 learners L2. Therefore, irrespective of the fact that syntactic transfer from L1 occurs or not, bilinguals would have an advantage (or at least no disadvantage) in languag e learning as compared to monolinguals. Similarly, studies have also proved that transfers in the bilinguals knowledge of different orthographic systems give the bilingual an advantage in TLA. While numerous languages in the world are similar orthographically, many written languages have vastly different orthographic systems. In many cases, a learner of an additional language would need to learn a new orthographic system. Abu-Rabia Sanitsky (2010) compared students with knowledge in two orthographies (Hebrew and Russian) against students with knowledge in only one (Hebrew) in the acquisition of English as an additional language. While the results found that transfers of orthographic skills occurred in both groups of students, the learners who were familiar with two orthographic types outperformed those with knowledge in only one type of orthography. It was also noted that the rich orthographic experience in different orthographies is an advantage for trilingual speakers. However, numerous studies have found limited orthog raphic transfers when two vastly different orthographic systems were involved (e.g. Wang, Perfetti Liu, 2005 on Chinese-English; Wang, Park Lee, 2006 on Korean-English). In particular, Bialystok, Luk Kwan (2005) compared Spanish-English, Hebrew-English and Chinese-English bilinguals with monolinguals, and found that all three groups of bilinguals obtained higher levels of literacy than the monolinguals. They also found that Spanish-English and Hebrew-English bilinguals had a greater advantage than Chinese-English bilinguals (Spanish and Hebrew are both written alphabetically albeit in different scripts; Chinese is written logographically). While evidence shows that bilinguals would have an advantage in TLA due to orthographic transfers, the magnitude of such gains would be dependent on the similarities (if any) of the orthographies involved. It can be assumed that as the benefits of orthographic transfers exist due to the bilinguals enhanced awareness of different orthographic and script systems, bilinguals who use the same orthography and script in both L1 and L2 would find little or no advantage over monolinguals in the acquisition of an additional language which uses a different orthographic system. The same bilingual would however experience benefits in learning a L3 which uses the same or similar orthography and script as both the L1 and L2. However, what remains to be researched is the amount of orthographic transfer when the L3 is orthographically similar to either but not both the L1 and L2. It would also be interesting to find out if the filtering effect as proposed earlier by Bardel Falk (2007) on blocking o f syntactic transfers from the L1 by the L2 likewise holds true for orthographic transfers. TLA is similar to SLA in many ways, but yet it has been reported that language learners benefit from not only meta-linguistic gains but also from meta-procedural gains from prior language learning experiences. A study by McLaughin Nayak (1989) speculated that expert learners use different information-processing strategies and techniques than do more novice learners, and noted that multilinguals use a wider range of strategies and are more flexible in language learning than monolinguals. Similarly, Kemp (2007) showed that multilinguals experience in language learning helps them formulate better learning strategies which speeds acquisition through freeing up working memory. Kemp further noted that the number and frequency of strategies used in language learning is positively related to the number of languages the language learner already knows. From this, we can conclude that the more languages a person knows, the easier it will be for him to acquire an additional language. We can thu s deduce that bilingualism gives the bilingual an advantage in L3 acquisition brought about by the prior language learning experience. However, most studies on L3 learners meta-procedural gains have compared L3 learners with L2 learners, neglecting the differences between L3 learners who are simultaneous or sequential bilinguals. For L3 learners to reap the benefits from meta-procedural gains, logically, the learner must have had prior textbook learning of a language. Simultaneous bilinguals who grew up learning two languages simultaneously in a naturalist setting would not have had prior language learning experiences to tap upon. Further studies on TLA comparing simultaneous and sequential bilinguals would fill this gap and offer additional evidence of such meta-procedural gains if results prove that sequential bilinguals perform better in TLA over simultaneous bilinguals. During the course of this paper, we have discussed how, more often than not, bilingualism has shown to exhibit positive effects on the acquisition of a L3 be it meta-linguistically or meta-procedurally. It has to be noted that while most studies conducted on the effects of bilingualism on TLA tend to claim advantages for bilinguals, not all reports on the effects of bilingualism on third language acquisition is positive. Some studies have instead shown no significant advantages in TLA by bilinguals (Soler, 2008). Cenoz (2003) further pointed out that even if bilingualism has an effect on third language acquisition, it does not have to affect all aspects of third language proficiency in the same way, and different conclusions can be drawn depending on the dimension of language proficiency taken into consideration. Moreover, in Del Puerto (2007), it was pointed out that balanced bilinguals tend to perform better than less balanced bilinguals in third language learning. In other words, the degree of proficiency in L1 and L2 must also be taken into account when evaluating the effects of bilingualism on third language acquisition. Logical reasoning would direct that a bilingual who is less proficient in or is suffering from language attrition in either of his languages would perform less impressively than a balanced bilingual. As Del Puerto (2007) aptly sums it, third language acquisition is an exceedingly complex process and a multicausal phenomenon than can be affected by multifarious factors. We have but discussed some of the effects of bilingualism on third language acquisition, but the multitude of causal factors involved in third language acquisition means that much more can be discussed on this subject.